Education शिक्षणशास्त्र

Quick summary

This chapter studies five great Indian educational thinkers from outside Maharashtra: Rabindranath Tagore, Swami Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan and Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar. For each one you must know two things: their educational thoughts (what they believed education should be) and their educational contribution (the schools, institutions and work they started).

Key points

• Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941): defined education as "self-expression". He wanted freedom for children, learning in a natural setting, mother tongue as the medium, self-discipline from within (not by punishment), education linked with life, character building and harmony with nature (from his book Personality).
• Tagore started Shantiniketan school (1901, Bolpur near Kolkata) – open-air classes, residential, mother-tongue medium, activity-based. It had three sections: Shishu Vibhag (up to 10 years), Madhya Vibhag (10–15) and Adya Vibhag (above 15).
• In 1921 Shantiniketan became Vishwabharati University, motto "Yatra Vishvam Bhavati Ek Needam" (where the world makes a home in one nest). In 1922 he started Shriniketan at Surul village, a rural vocational and technical school.
• Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902): "Education is the manifestation of the perfection already within man." He stressed character building, equal education for men and women, physical education ("strength is life, weakness is death"), concentration of mind, mother tongue, national and global harmony, and removing superstitions.
• Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission on 1 May 1897, with two wings – Math and Mission – which ran schools, colleges, teacher training, hospitals and social service.
• Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948): "Literacy is not the end of education, not even the beginning." Education means drawing out the best in a person's body, mind and spirit. He wanted free and compulsory education from 6 to 14, mother tongue, craft as the centre of learning, self-reliance, life-centred and psychology-based education, physical education, and character building as the main aim.
• Gandhi's Basic Education (Nai Talim) was presented at the Wardha conference in 1937: free and compulsory primary education, mother tongue, self-supporting education and productive craft.
• Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan (1888–1975): education is not mere literacy; it must train the intellect, refine the heart and discipline the spirit. He stressed humanity, democracy, scientific attitude, balanced personality, culture, self-discipline and women's education.
• Radhakrishnan chaired the University Education Commission (1948), was Vice Chancellor of Andhra University (1931–38) and BHU (1939–48), Vice President (1952–62) and President (1962). His birthday, 5 September, is Teachers' Day.
• Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar (1891–1956): education makes a person aware of rights and duties and gives strength to fight injustice. It removes inequality and oppression, is "food for the mind", builds character and values, and must be free and compulsory for 6–14 years, with girls encouraged equally. "Educate, Unite and Struggle" was the motto of his Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha.

Important terms

• Shantiniketan – Tagore's residential, open-air school (1901).
• Vishwabharati – international university formed from Shantiniketan (1921); "Bharati" means culture.
• Shriniketan – Tagore's rural vocational school (1922); "Shri" means welfare.
• Nai Talim / Basic Education – Gandhi's craft-centred, self-supporting education plan (1937).
• Ramakrishna Mission – Vivekananda's organisation for education and service (1897).
• Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha – Ambedkar's organisation for the uplift of the deprived (1924).

Key facts

5 important questions

Q1. What is the motto of Vishwabharati University?

"Yatra Vishvam Bhavati Ek Needam" – the place where the whole world makes its home in a single nest.

Q2. Give Swami Vivekananda's definition of education.

"Education is the manifestation of the perfection already within man."

Q3. State the main features of Gandhi's Basic Education (Nai Talim).

Free and compulsory primary education for all; mother tongue as medium; education should be self-reliant and self-supporting; productive craft at the centre of learning. It balances idealism, naturalism, pragmatism and social reconstructionism.

Q4. Write a short note on Shantiniketan.

Started by Tagore in 1901 at Bolpur. Residential school with classes in the open, close to nature. Teachers and pupils lived together; pupils did their own hostel work. Subjects like gardening, music, drama, carpentry. Mother tongue medium. Three sections by age.

Q5. Explain Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar's educational contribution.

Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924) started hostels and the magazine Saraswati Vilas; Dalitwarg Education Society (1928) gave hostels to poor Dalit students; People's Education Society (1945) started Siddharth College, Mumbai (1946) and Milind College, Aurangabad (1950) for higher education of backward classes.

Exam tip

Make a chart: thinker → definition of education → institutions with years. Most short-answer and match-the-pair questions come straight from this chart.

Quick summary

After independence (1947) India set up commissions, policies and frameworks to rebuild its education system. This chapter covers the University Education Commission, the Secondary Education Commission, the Indian (Kothari) Education Commission, the National Policy on Education 1986, the National Curriculum Framework 2005, the Maharashtra State Curriculum Framework 2010 and the Right to Education Act 2009. In 1976 a constitutional amendment put education in the Concurrent List, so it is the duty of both the Centre and the States.

Key points

• University Education Commission (1948–49): set up on 4 November 1948 under Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan; 10 members; secretary Nirmal Kumar Siddhanta. Aim: reshape higher education for the new nation.
• Its recommendations: uniform degree examinations across India; scholarships for research; three grades of university teachers – Lecturer, Reader, Professor (retirement at 60, professors up to 64); a student welfare council and good hostels; a full-time Board of Examination in each university; external examiners; large, well-staffed libraries.
• Secondary Education Commission (1952–53): set up on 23 September 1952 under Dr. A. Lakshmanswami Mudaliar (Vice Chancellor, Madras University); member secretary Principal A. N. Basu.
• Its recommendations: multipurpose schools with diversified courses; guidance officers and vocational guidance; vocational curriculum teaching dignity of labour; mother tongue or regional language as medium; activity-based teaching.
• Indian Education Commission (1964–66): set up on 14 July 1964 under Dr. Daulat Singh Kothari; 17 members; member secretary J. P. Naik. First line of its report: "The destiny of India is now being shaped in her classrooms."
• Kothari recommendations: activity and play at pre-primary level; free textbooks in primary schools; an autonomous body for textbooks; maths and science compulsory at secondary level; three-language formula for Std 8–10 (mother tongue, national language, English); State Board external exams; work experience, social service, arts; religious education voluntary; activities like NCC.
• National Policy on Education 1986: announced by PM Rajiv Gandhi on 5 January 1985; report "Challenge of Education: A Policy Perspective" (20 August 1985). Key idea: "Education is a unique investment in the present and the future."
• NPE 1986 features: common 10+2+3 pattern; free, compulsory quality education for 6–14; Operation Blackboard; Navodaya Vidyalayas for rural children; open universities; district teacher-training institutes (DIET); priority to women's education; value education; 10 core elements in the curriculum.
• NCF 2005 (NCERT): link knowledge to life outside school, free learning from rote methods, less textbook-centred teaching, flexible exams linked to classroom life.
• Maharashtra State Curriculum Framework 2010: decided 24 April 2009, approved by the state on 12 October 2011; every child is important; learning skills over content load; ICT; mother tongue; CCE for Std 1–8; physical education compulsory; inclusive education.
• RTE Act 2009: Article 21A made education a fundamental right; approved by the President 20 August 2009; in force from 1 April 2010.

Important terms

• Concurrent List – subjects on which both Centre and States make laws; education joined it in 1976.
• Multipurpose school – a secondary school offering many streams by interest (Mudaliar).
• Three-language formula – mother tongue + national language + English (Kothari).
• Operation Blackboard – NPE 1986 scheme for minimum facilities in every school.
• Article 21A – makes free and compulsory education for 6–14 a fundamental right.

Key facts

Main RTE provisions: free and compulsory education for every child aged 6–14; no child held back or expelled till elementary education is complete; 25% seats in private schools for poor children; no capitation fee and no interview of child or parents at admission; special training for dropouts to join peers of their age; surveys to find out-of-school children; Centre gives funds, states and local bodies implement.

5 important questions

Q1. Who was the chairman of the Indian Education Commission?

Dr. Daulat Singh Kothari; J. P. Naik was the member secretary. It is called the Kothari Commission (1964–66).

Q2. When did the RTE Act come into force?

On 1 April 2010, across the whole country.

Q3. State any four recommendations of the Secondary Education Commission.

Multipurpose schools with diversified courses; vocational guidance services with trained officers; vocational curriculum to build dignity of labour; mother tongue or regional language as medium; activity-based teaching methods.

Q4. Explain the salient features of the National Policy on Education 1986.

10+2+3 pattern; free, compulsory quality education 6–14; Operation Blackboard; Navodaya Vidyalayas; open universities; district teacher-training institutes; education of the disabled; ashram schools for SC/ST; priority to women; work experience, physical and value education; 10 core curriculum elements.

Q5. Write the main provisions of the RTE Act 2009.

See the provisions listed under Key facts – write at least six with a line each.

Exam tip

Learn each commission as a set: year – chairman – secretary – 4 recommendations. Mixing up Mudaliar (secondary) and Kothari (all levels) is the most common mistake.

Quick summary

A human being learns to live as a member of society through socialization, and education is one of its strongest means. Society itself keeps changing; planned, lasting change in social structure is social transformation, and the teacher has a big role in it. The chapter ends with mass communication media – print, broadcast and web media – and their benefits and limitations.

Key points

• Man is a social animal. A child first adjusts to the family, then to school, then to wider society; this whole social and psychological process is socialization.
• Watson: socialization is a social and psychological process. Harry Johnson: socialization is the education that enables a learner to play his or her role in society.
• Brown: in school, socialization happens in a controlled setting with formal methods, so school and teachers carry a big responsibility.
• Role of education in socialization: language and interaction build understanding of others; keeps socialization democratic; friendly relations in school; teaches values, rules and social control; helps students resist harmful trends; gives knowledge, values and social experience.
• Social transformation = purposeful, lasting change in social structure and relations. Harry Johnson: change in social structure. Spencer: social evolution.
• Characteristics: dynamic; necessary for development; depends on changing needs; supported by rational thinking; needs comparison of two periods; has a direction (progress or regress).
• Factors: physical (earthquakes, floods), political (wars, freedom), economic (poverty, inflation), industrial (industrialisation → urbanisation), science and technology, social-cultural, transport, traditions/values/law, movements (Quit India, Dalit, women's liberation) and population.
• Teacher's role in transformation: connect students with all sections of society, build change-ready and creative thinking, make them lifelong learners, build social-moral values and scientific attitude, job-related skills, innovative projects, democratic culture and leadership.
• Mass communication media carry ideas, opinions and information to a very large number of people at the same time.
• Three types: print media (newspapers, periodicals, books, encyclopedias), broadcast media (radio, television, films) and web media (internet, teleconferencing, blog, podcast, mobile phone).
• Benefits: lasting visual experience, lakhs of students learn from one expert, mass education, showing cultural ethos and special places, distance education, leaders' messages, news, entertainment.
• Limitations: wrong or vague messages spread fast; commercialisation through ads; traditional arts pushed back; political misuse; show-off culture; poor programmes harm values; overuse reduces real learning; publicity is a two-edged weapon.

Important terms

• Socialization – learning to adjust and function as a member of society.
• Social transformation – planned, long-lasting change in social structure and relations.
• Print media – printed sources like newspapers and books.
• Broadcast media – radio, TV and films sent to a mass audience.
• Web media – internet-based media such as blogs and podcasts.
• Teleconferencing – electronic meeting at a distance: video, audio, audio-graphic or computer conferencing.

Key facts

• Definitions: Watson and Harry Johnson (socialization); Harry Johnson and Spencer (social transformation); Brown (school socialization).
• Encyclopedias arrange information in alphabetical order for quick reference.
• Mobile phones were first used in Japan in 1969 and became a mass medium from 1998.
• The word "blog" comes from "web log".
• Podcast is called "media store" in the textbook.

5 important questions

Q1. What is socialization?

The social and psychological process by which an individual adjusts first to the family, then to school and then to society, and learns to play a role in it.

Q2. Give two examples of print media.

Newspapers and periodicals (also books and encyclopedias).

Q3. Explain the characteristics of social transformation.

It is dynamic; it is needed for development; it depends on society's changing needs; it rests on rational thought; it can be judged only by comparing two periods; it has a direction – progress or regress.

Q4. Describe the role of a teacher in social transformation.

Brings students in touch with all strata of society; builds open, creative thinking; makes them lifelong learners; builds values and scientific attitude; develops job skills; designs projects and experiments; builds democratic culture and leadership.

Q5. State the benefits and limitations of mass communication media.

Benefits: visual learning, reach of expert teachers, mass and distance education, culture, news, entertainment. Limitations: false messages, commercialisation, political misuse, decline of traditional arts, overuse reduces real-life learning.

Exam tip

Learn the three types of mass media with two examples each – match-the-pair questions (periodicals → print, radio → broadcast, internet → web) are very common.

Quick summary

Learning is a natural, lifelong process that brings a relatively permanent change in behaviour. This chapter explains the concept, nature and characteristics of learning, the factors that affect it, transfer of learning, and two theories: Thorndike's trial and error theory and Kohler's insightful learning theory.

Key points

• Munn: learning is permanent adaptation while responding to a situation. Murphy: learning covers every modification in behaviour and perception. Crow and Crow: learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes.
• Learning changes the cognitive (thinking, knowledge), affective (emotions, values, interests, attitudes) and psychomotor (physical skills) domains.
• Nature of learning: goal-oriented, needs motivation, path-searching movements, adjustment, repetition, insight, restructuring of behaviour.
• Characteristics: basic process of life; psycho-physical (senses must be active); continuous; purposeful; follows a sequence; needs motivation; brings desirable and progressive change; increases adjustment; strengthened by practice; can be applied to other learning.
• Internal factors: age, maturity, motivation, attention and interest, will power. External factors: family and social background, previous experience, conducive environment, nature of content, method of learning.
• Transfer of learning: learning in one situation affects learning in another – favourably, unfavourably or not at all.
• What gets transferred: knowledge (Sanskrit helps Marathi/Hindi), techniques and skills (tabla → dholki), attitudes and values (a truthful person stays truthful).
• Thorndike (American, 1898, book Animal Intelligence): hungry cat in a puzzle box with fish outside. Steps: motivation → path-searching movements → success by chance → fixation due to success. Also called "learning through errors".
• Thorndike's three laws: readiness, practice (exercise) and effect.
• Kohler (German, Gestalt school, 1925): chimpanzee joins two sticks to pull in bananas. Learning is understanding the whole situation, not parts.
• Kohler's three steps: realise the problem → see the relationship (insight) between elements → find the solution.

Important terms

• Learning – a purposeful, relatively permanent change in behaviour through experience.
• Positive transfer – earlier learning helps new learning (cycle → motorcycle; maths → physics).
• Negative transfer – earlier learning hinders new learning (Marathi speaker's Hindi).
• Zero transfer – no effect (maths does not help music).
• Insight – sudden, whole understanding of the relations in a situation.
• Gestalt – school of Wertheimer, Koffka and Kohler: learn as a whole, not in parts.

Key facts

Laws of learning (Thorndike): Readiness – learn only when physically and mentally ready. Practice – repeated practice fixes learning. Effect – acts that bring satisfaction are repeated; those that bring discomfort are avoided.

5 important questions

Q1. Give Crow and Crow's definition of learning.

"Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes."

Q2. What is zero transfer? Give an example.

When learning one thing has no effect on learning another, e.g. knowledge of mathematics does not help in learning music.

Q3. Explain Thorndike's three laws of learning.

Readiness, practice and effect, as above – give one classroom example for each (e.g. praise after a correct answer = law of effect).

Q4. Distinguish between trial and error and insightful learning.

Trial and error: Thorndike, cat, random movements, success by chance, slow and gradual, works on parts. Insight: Kohler, chimpanzee, understanding relations, sudden solution, whole-to-part approach.

Q5. State the educational importance of insightful learning.

Simple and clear objectives; teach "whole to part"; train students to see relations, differences and generalisations; content suited to age; let students solve problems themselves with teacher's help.

Exam tip

Draw the cat and chimpanzee experiments as flow charts of steps – "write the steps followed by the hungry cat" is a common concept-map question.

Quick summary

Good management is needed to plan, organise, direct, control and evaluate education so that human and physical resources are used well. This chapter covers the qualities of a good educational manager, the teacher as a classroom manager, the main state-level education officers (Secretary, Commissioner, Director of Education) and four state-level institutions in Maharashtra: SCERT, Balbharati, the State Board and the State Council of Examination.

Key points

• A good educational manager coordinates human and physical resources through planning, organising, directing, communicating, controlling and motivating.
• Qualities of a good educational manager: good planner and leader; sets objectives and coordinates; mentor and motivator; skilled and studious; knows policies and procedures; democratic; open to new ideas; accountable for success and failure; self-disciplined; good evaluator; good communicator.
• Teacher as classroom manager: watches attendance; uses varied methods and aids; ensures active participation; democratic classroom; reinforces good behaviour and corrects kindly; builds self-discipline; motivates; creates a good classroom climate; acts as counsellor and guide; plans time; forms groups and leaders; keeps aids ready; links students and management.
• Secretary of Education: link between the Minister for School Education and the Director; advises the Minister on policies and laws; drafts resolutions and laws; studies financial and administrative problems.
• Commissioner of Education: coordinates all directors; implements all schemes; quality measures; permissions (D.El.Ed. vacant seats, change of medium in Jr. colleges, educational films, co-education in girls' schools); NOC and renewal for CBSE, ICSE and IB schools; monitors regional deputy directors.
• Director of Education: carries out policies and orders from the Secretary; advises the Minister; proposes new programmes; controls institutions; sanctions grants. Helped by Joint, Deputy and Regional Deputy Directors.
• SCERT, Maharashtra, Pune: began as the State Institute of Education (1964); renamed SCERT on 31 August 1984. Works for quality primary education, teacher training and research; controls DIETs; prepares the D.El.Ed. curriculum and admissions; publishes Jeevan Shikshan.
• Balbharati (Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune): set up on 27 January 1967 on the Kothari Commission's advice; the State Education Minister is ex-officio chairman. Produces, evaluates and distributes textbooks at low cost; publishes Kishor magazine; nine regional depots.
• Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education, Pune: set up 1 January 1966; nine divisional boards (Pune, Aurangabad, Nashik, Nagpur, Amravati, Kolhapur, Mumbai, Latur, Ratnagiri). Conducts SSC and HSC exams, declares results, frames rules, publishes Shikshan Sankraman.
• Maharashtra State Council of Examination, Pune: began in 1968 as Shasakiya Pariksha Mandal; present name from 15 August 2002. Conducts D.El.Ed., TTC, C.P.Ed., scholarship exams (M.S.S., H.S.S.), state NTS, G.C.C., TET, RIMC entrance and departmental exams.

Important terms

• Educational management – planning, organising, directing, controlling and evaluating educational work.
• SCERT – State Council of Educational Research and Training.
• DIET – District Institute of Education and Training.
• D.El.Ed. – Diploma in Elementary Education (primary teacher course).
• TET – Teacher Eligibility Test.

Key facts

5 important questions

Q1. Which institution publishes school textbooks in Maharashtra?

Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research (Balbharati), Pune.

Q2. Name any four examinations conducted by the Maharashtra State Council of Examination.

D.El.Ed., Teacher Eligibility Test (TET), Middle School Scholarship (M.S.S.), High School Scholarship (H.S.S.).

Q3. State the qualities of a good educational manager.

Planner, leader, coordinator, motivator, knowledgeable, aware of rules, democratic, innovative, accountable, self-disciplined, good evaluator and communicator.

Q4. Explain the functions of a teacher as a classroom manager.

Attendance, varied methods, participation, democratic climate, reinforcement, self-discipline, motivation, counselling, time planning, group work, aids ready, link with management.

Q5. Explain the functions of the Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education.

Advises government on policy; conducts SSC/HSC exams and declares results; evaluates curriculum and exam methods and does research; frames passing rules and gives certificates; controls nine divisional boards; publishes Shikshan Sankraman.

Exam tip

Make a table of institution – year – head office – magazine – 3 functions. Date and magazine questions are easy marks.

Quick summary

Curriculum decides what to teach, how to teach and how to check whether the aims are reached. Evaluation checks how far the educational objectives have been achieved. The chapter explains the elements and principles of curriculum, the factors of evaluation, measurement versus evaluation, Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (formative and summative) and four kinds of examination: written, oral, practical and online.

Key points

• Monroe: curriculum is all the experiences the school uses to reach the aims of education. The Secondary Education Commission said curriculum is not just classroom subjects but the totality of a child's experiences in school.
• Elements of curriculum: educational objectives → content → teaching methods and tools → tools of evaluation.
• Principles of curriculum development: objective-oriented; value-based and life-oriented; child-centred and activity-centred; helps personality development (co-curricular activities); useful for earning a livelihood; flexible and dynamic.
• Measurement answers "how much" (height, weight, marks). Evaluation answers "how good" and includes qualitative judgement. Evaluation = quantitative description + qualitative description + teacher's feedback (value judgement).
• Evaluation is a systematic way to find how far educational objectives are achieved.
• Factors of evaluation: educational objectives, learning experiences and evaluation – they are interlinked. Dr. Patel added a fourth, subject matter, so each of the four depends on the other three.
• CCE = continuous evaluation of the all-round development of the student. It has two methods: formative and summative.
• Formative evaluation: regular, step-by-step evaluation during learning. Tools: daily observation, oral work, practicals, activities, projects, short tests, open-book tests, class work, self and peer evaluation.
• Summative evaluation: integrated evaluation after a period, e.g. at the end of the first and second term; written, oral or practical.
• Written exams use objective, short-answer and essay questions. Merits: many students at once, motivation, records progress, writing skill, helps shy students. Limits: handwriting and subjectivity affect marks; objective questions encourage guessing and do not test expression.
• Oral exams: instant diagnosis of mistakes; test pronunciation, presence of mind, communication; no printing cost. Limits: time-consuming; questions differ in level for each student; no record of answers, so no re-checking; depends on the examiner's mood and subjectivity.
• Practical exams: test application and skill by direct observation, testing prepared articles or assembling machine parts; need standard, safe, working apparatus (and UPS/generator for electrical work). Limits: costly, time-consuming, not for all subjects.
• Online exams: no handwriting effect, no subjectivity, pictures easy, quick results, can be held any time. Limits: costly, limited by computers, technical problems, unfair to students without computer skills, not suited to essays.

Important terms

• Curriculum – all planned school experiences used to reach the aims of education.
• Measurement – expressing something in numbers (how much).
• Evaluation – judging the quality of learning against objectives (how good).
• Formative evaluation – continuous evaluation during learning.
• Summative evaluation – evaluation at the end of a term or course.
• CCE – Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation.

Key facts

5 important questions

Q1. Give Monroe's definition of curriculum.

"Curriculum embodies all the experiences which are utilised by the school to attain the aims of education."

Q2. State the difference between measurement and evaluation.

Measurement is quantitative and tells "how much"; evaluation adds qualitative judgement and feedback and tells "how good".

Q3. Explain the principles of curriculum development.

Objective-oriented; value-based and life-oriented; child- and activity-centred; supports personality development; livelihood-oriented; flexible and dynamic.

Q4. What tools and techniques are used in formative evaluation?

Daily observation, oral work, practicals, individual or group activities, projects, short tests and open-book tests, class work, questionnaires, peer and self evaluation.

Q5. State the benefits and limitations of online examination.

Benefits: no handwriting effect or subjectivity; pictures easily used; different time limits; repeated practice; quick results. Limits: expensive; limited computers; not for all subjects or essays; technical problems; hard for students without computer knowledge.

Exam tip

"Explain the difference" questions are common – learn formative vs summative and oral vs written as tables of four points.

Quick summary

Educational research uses scientific methods to study and solve problems in education. This chapter explains three research methods – historical (past), descriptive (present) and experimental (cause and effect, future) – the five general steps of research, and three tools of data collection: questionnaire, interview schedule and achievement test, with their benefits and limitations.

Key points

• Historical research method reveals the true picture of the past. It collects, describes, explains and evaluates past events and uses them to solve present problems.
• Features of historical research: a clear picture of the past (not just facts); the information already exists, only its collection is new; uses primary and secondary sources; verifies evidence and interprets it fairly; collection and analysis go on together.
• Descriptive research method studies problems of the present state.
• Features of descriptive research: data collected on a large scale and quickly; a sample that represents a large population; both qualitative and quantitative; solves local problems in a short time; scientific; includes survey, case study and developmental methods.
• Experimental research method collects information through experiments under controlled conditions and studies cause-and-effect relationships.
• John W. Best: experimental research describes and analyses what will be or will occur under carefully controlled conditions. Chapin: an experiment is an observation under controlled conditions.
• In an experiment, the experimental group gets the new treatment (e.g. e-learning material) and the control group gets the usual method. The treatment is the independent variable; the result (achievement) is the dependent variable.
• Features of experimental research: scientific and logical; studies the effect of one factor on another; needs accurate observation; small group, size decided by the problem; objective and verifiable.
• General steps of research: (1) select the problem (2) prepare the research design (3) prepare tools and collect data (4) classify, analyse and interpret data (5) write the report.
• Questionnaire: a set of open-ended and closed-ended questions that respondents answer themselves.
• Interview schedule: face-to-face conversation based on pre-decided points, with one person or a group.
• Achievement test: measures students' content knowledge; mainly used in experimental research; standardised or researcher-made.

Important terms

• Primary source – original record from the time of the event.
• Sample – a small group chosen to represent the whole population.
• Independent variable – the factor whose effect is studied.
• Dependent variable – the factor in which the change is measured.
• Control group – the group taught by the usual method, for comparison.

Key facts

5 important questions

Q1. What is descriptive research?

Research related to problems of the present state; it includes survey, case study and developmental methods.

Q2. Give Chapin's definition of an experiment.

"An experiment is an observation under controlled conditions."

Q3. Write the general steps of research.

Selection of problem; research design; preparing tools and collecting data; classification, analysis and interpretation; report writing.

Q4. A teacher teaches group A by demonstration and group B by the traditional method. Identify the groups and variables.

Group A = experimental group, group B = control group. Teaching method = independent variable; achievement = dependent variable.

Q5. Explain the characteristics of historical research.

Studies past events to solve present problems; needs a clear picture, not just facts; data already exists; uses primary and secondary sources; checks evidence fairly; collects and analyses together.

Exam tip

Learn the three-method comparison table and the experimental/control group example – a case-based question on variables is very likely.

Quick summary

Education keeps changing with society; these changes are called new trends in education. After e-learning in Std 11, this chapter covers five more trends: inclusive education, open education, blended learning, constructivism and skill-based education – their concept, characteristics, benefits and limitations.

Key points

• Inclusive education brings students with different abilities together in the same school and class. Students with special needs are called 'Divyang' (blind, deaf, physically disabled, learning disabled, etc.).
• UNESCO: inclusive education responds to the diversity of needs of all learners by increasing participation and reducing exclusion.
• Features: Divyang children study with others; no school can refuse admission because of disability; special teachers and aids; ramps, wheelchairs and other changes; extra need-based classes; joint activities; awareness for parents and community; mutual respect; children with severe disability may go to special schools.
• Government schemes for Divyang: scholarships (pre-school and after matriculation), welfare scheme, training in government institutions, granted special schools run by NGOs, self-employment aid, artificial limbs and equipment, State Divyang Welfare Award, kindergarten for mentally challenged children.
• Benefits: faster socialization; all children learn to co-operate and respect differences. Limitations: Divyang children may suffer if mocked; all students lose if the teacher ignores different needs.
• Open education frees learning from the rigid rules of formal school – admission, attendance, timetable, exams. In India: National Open School Institute; in Maharashtra: Maharashtra State Mukta Vidyalaya Mandal.
• Functions of open education: develop curriculum (school and vocational), set up district study centres, prepare printed and audio-visual material, give admission (Std 5, 8, 10 and 12 levels) and conduct evaluation.
• Characteristics: non-formal; distance mode with contact sessions; admission by age criteria, not previous marks; self-study with provided material.
• Blended learning (Cambridge Dictionary): combines traditional classroom lessons with computer and internet-based lessons. Example: watching online videos of a volcano and also reading the textbook.
• Blended learning benefits: learning-centred; choice of material; technology plus human contact; real and virtual classrooms; variety. Limitations: no formal training for using online tools; if online tools fail, only offline remains.
• Constructivism (Johnson): knowledge is constructed by the knower through mental activity. The student creates knowledge using previous experience; the teacher is a guide, facilitator and compere; evaluation is a process, not a goal.
• Skill-based education: learning vocational skills along with regular education, leading to jobs and entrepreneurship (e.g. motor repair, tourism). The government runs Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) through the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship.

Important terms

• Divyang – a person with a disability (differently abled).
• Open education – flexible, non-formal education through distance mode.
• Blended learning – mix of online and offline (traditional) learning.
• Constructivism – learning theory in which the learner builds his or her own knowledge.
• Skill-based education – education that gives job-related practical skills.

Key facts

Role of the teacher in constructivism: inspire and guide; encourage self-study and independent study; accept students' own concepts; encourage creative thinking; use new technology.

Role of the student in constructivism: be curious and ready to discuss; understand problems and state them clearly; do experiments; express views clearly; check knowledge; accept new ideas.

Benefits of skill-based education: prepares entrepreneurs; skill-based jobs; national pool of skilled people; employability; industry grows; India can use global opportunities and supply skilled workers abroad; Divyang students become self-reliant; respect for labour.

5 important questions

Q1. Who are called 'Divyang'?

Students with special needs or disabilities such as blindness, deafness or physical and learning disabilities.

Q2. Through which body is open education given in Maharashtra?

Maharashtra State Mukta Vidyalaya Mandal (nationally, the National Open School Institute).

Q3. Explain the characteristics of inclusive education.

Divyang and other students learn together; no refusal of admission; special teachers and aids; physical changes like ramps; extra classes; joint activities; awareness programmes; mutual respect.

Q4. What is blended learning? State its benefits.

A mix of classroom and online learning. Benefits: learning-centred, choice of material, technology plus human contact, real and virtual classrooms, best use of available resources, variety of experiences.

Q5. Explain the role of the teacher and student in constructivism.

Teacher: guide, motivator, resource provider, encourages self-study and creativity, uses technology. Student: curious, discusses, experiments, states views clearly, accepts new ideas.

Exam tip

For each trend, learn one definition and one example (e.g. volcano video + textbook = blended learning). Short notes on any trend are commonly asked.