इतिहास History

Quick summary

After Aurangzeb's death (1707) the Mughal Empire broke up and many regional states arose. The strongest new power was the Marathas, led after 1713 by the Peshwas of Pune under the Chhatrapati at Satara. Under Balaji Vishwanath, Bajirao I and Nanasaheb, Maratha power spread across India until the defeat at Panipat (1761). Madhavrao I revived it, but internal quarrels later helped the British.

Key points

• Regional states of the 18th century: Hyderabad (Nizam-ul-Mulk, 1724), Awadh, Bengal, Mysore (Haidar Ali), the Sikhs, Jats and Rajputs, and the Maratha state.
• Balaji Vishwanath (Peshwa 1713–1720) supported Shahu in his struggle with Tararani. In 1719 he obtained Mughal sanads giving the Marathas swarajya and the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi from the six Deccan provinces.
• Bajirao I (1720–1740), a brilliant cavalry general, defeated the Nizam at Palkhed (1728), won Malwa and Bundelkhand (helping Chhatrasal), raided Delhi (1737) and defeated the Nizam at Bhopal (1738). His brother Chimaji Appa captured Vasai from the Portuguese (1739).
• Nanasaheb (Balaji Bajirao) (1740–1761): after Shahu's death (1749) the Peshwa became the real ruler. Maratha power reached Punjab and Orissa; the Nizam was defeated at Udgir (1760).
• Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761): Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas led by Sadashivrao Bhau; Vishwasrao died. Causes of defeat: lack of allies, supply problems, unwieldy camp, Abdali's strong artillery and cavalry.
• Madhavrao I (1761–1772) restored Maratha prestige; Mahadji Shinde brought Mughal emperor Shah Alam II back to Delhi (1771–72).
• Maratha Confederacy: Peshwa (Pune), Shinde (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore; Ahilyabai Holkar was a famous ruler), Gaikwad (Baroda) and Bhosale of Nagpur (Raghuji I extended power to Orissa and raided Bengal).
• After Narayanrao's murder (1773), Nana Phadnavis led the Barbhai council against Raghunathrao, who sought British help (First Anglo-Maratha War).
• Bajirao II signed the Treaty of Bassein (1802); the Third Anglo-Maratha War ended Peshwa rule in 1818.

Important terms

• Peshwa – chief minister of the Chhatrapati; later the real head of the Maratha state.
• Chauth – one-fourth of the revenue collected from a region for protection.
• Sardeshmukhi – an extra 10 percent claimed as the hereditary head (sardeshmukh).
• Sanad – an official grant or charter.
• Confederacy – a union of semi-independent chiefs under a common head.

Important dates and people

• 1719 – Mughal sanads to the Marathas.
• 1728 – Battle of Palkhed.
• 1739 – Vasai captured.
• 14 January 1761 – Third Battle of Panipat.
• 1818 – end of Peshwa rule.

5 important questions

Q1. What were chauth and sardeshmukhi?

Chauth was one-fourth of the land revenue of a region, and sardeshmukhi an additional one-tenth; the Marathas collected them as a sign of overlordship.

Q2. Who won the Battle of Palkhed?

Peshwa Bajirao I defeated the Nizam in 1728.

Q3. Describe the achievements of Peshwa Bajirao I.

• Military skill and strategy.
• Palkhed, Malwa, Bundelkhand.
• Delhi and Bhopal.
• Vasai campaign; assessment.

Q4. Explain the causes and results of the Third Battle of Panipat.

• Causes: Maratha expansion in the north, Abdali's ambitions.
• Course of the battle.
• Causes of defeat.
• Results for the Marathas, Mughals and British.

Q5. Write a note on the Maratha Confederacy.

• Its members and areas.
• Advantages: wide expansion.
• Weaknesses: rivalry, lack of central control.
• Role in Maratha decline.

Exam tip

Learn each Peshwa with one big event and date: Balaji Vishwanath – 1719 sanads; Bajirao I – Palkhed 1728; Nanasaheb – Panipat 1761.

Quick summary

From the late 15th century, European traders came to India by sea in search of spices, cotton cloth and other goods. The Portuguese came first (1498), followed by the Dutch, the English and the French. They set up trading posts (factories), fought among themselves and with Indian rulers, and finally the English East India Company became the dominant power.

Key points

• Causes: capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks (1453) disturbed the old land routes; demand for spices in Europe; new navigation technology; Renaissance spirit of exploration.
• Portuguese: Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on 20 May 1498, welcomed by the Zamorin.
• Francisco de Almeida (first viceroy, 1505) followed the "Blue Water Policy" of naval power.
• Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa from Bijapur in 1510; Goa became the Portuguese capital in India. They also held Daman, Diu, Bassein (Vasai) and Chaul.
• The Marathas under Chimaji Appa captured Vasai (Bassein) in 1739 from the Portuguese.
• Portuguese decline: religious intolerance, rivalry with the Dutch and English, small home country, corruption. Goa stayed Portuguese until 1961.
• Dutch: Dutch East India Company (VOC) formed in 1602. Factories at Masulipatnam (1605), Pulicat, Surat, Chinsura and Cochin. They focused on the spice islands of Indonesia. The English defeated them at the Battle of Bedara (Chinsura) in 1759.
• English: East India Company got a charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600.
• Captain William Hawkins (1608) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615) visited Jahangir's court; Roe got permission for factories.
• First permanent English factory at Surat (1613). Madras (Fort St. George, 1639–40), Bombay received from the Portuguese as dowry when Charles II married Catherine of Braganza (1661) and given to the Company (1668), Calcutta (1690, Job Charnock; Fort William).
• Farrukhsiyar's farman (1717) gave duty-free trade in Bengal.
• French: French East India Company formed in 1664. First factory at Surat (1668); Pondicherry (1674) became their main centre. Dupleix was the most famous French governor.
• Anglo-French rivalry: three Carnatic Wars (1746–1763). Robert Clive's capture of Arcot (1751); the English won the decisive Battle of Wandiwash (1760). The French were left only with a few settlements like Pondicherry.
• Reasons for English success: strong navy, better organisation of a private company with state support, control of Bengal's wealth after Plassey, able leaders like Clive.

Important terms

• Factory – trading post/warehouse of a European company.
• Charter – royal permission to trade.
• Farman – royal order of the Mughal emperor.
• Carnatic – region of the south-east coast (Coromandel).
• Blue Water Policy – Portuguese policy of naval supremacy.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who was Vasco da Gama?

He was a Portuguese sailor who discovered the sea route from Europe to India via the Cape of Good Hope. He reached Calicut on 20 May 1498.

Q2. What was the importance of the Battle of Wandiwash?

In 1760 the English defeated the French at Wandiwash in the Third Carnatic War. It ended French hopes of building an empire in India.

Q3. Describe the rise and decline of the Portuguese in India.

• Arrival of Vasco da Gama (1498).
• Almeida's naval policy; Albuquerque's capture of Goa.
• Control of sea trade; cartaz system (passes).
• Decline: religious intolerance, Dutch and English rivalry, Maratha conquest of Vasai.
• Retained Goa, Daman, Diu till 1961.

Q4. Explain the Anglo-French rivalry in the Carnatic.

• First Carnatic War (1746–48) – link with Austrian Succession war.
• Second (1749–54) – succession disputes; Clive at Arcot.
• Third (1756–63) – Wandiwash 1760.
• Result: English supremacy; French confined to Pondicherry.

Q5. Why did the English succeed over other European powers in India?

• Superior navy.
• Efficient company structure, private enterprise.
• Strong home government support.
• Wealth of Bengal after Plassey.
• Able leaders: Clive, Warren Hastings.
• Weak rivals' mistakes (e.g. recall of Dupleix).

Exam tip

Write the four European powers in order of arrival with one main base each (Portuguese – Goa, Dutch – Pulicat/Chinsura, English – Surat/Bombay/Calcutta, French – Pondicherry).

Quick summary

Between 1757 and 1856, the English East India Company changed from a trading company into the ruler of most of India. It used wars (Plassey, Buxar, Anglo-Mysore, Anglo-Maratha, Anglo-Sikh), and policies such as Wellesley's Subsidiary Alliance and Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse. By 1856 the Company controlled almost the whole subcontinent directly or indirectly.

Key points

• Battle of Plassey (23 June 1757): Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah, Nawab of Bengal, mainly through the betrayal of Mir Jafar.
• Battle of Buxar (1764): the English defeated the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah of Awadh and Mughal emperor Shah Alam II.
• Treaty of Allahabad (1765): the Company received the Diwani (revenue rights) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Clive introduced the Dual Government (1765–1772).
• Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767–1799): Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan resisted. Tipu died defending Srirangapatna in 1799 in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.
• Anglo-Maratha Wars:

1. First (1775–1782) – ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782); Mahadji Shinde played a major role.
2. Second (1803–1805) – after the Treaty of Bassein (1802), by which Peshwa Bajirao II accepted the subsidiary alliance.
3. Third (1817–1818) – battles of Khadki and Koregaon; the Peshwa was defeated and pensioned off to Bithur. Peshwa rule ended in 1818. The Bhosales of Nagpur were defeated at Sitabuldi (1817).

• Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–46, 1848–49): after Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death (1839), Punjab was annexed in 1849.
• Subsidiary Alliance (Lord Wellesley, 1798): an Indian ruler had to keep British troops in his state and pay for them, accept a British Resident, and not make alliances or employ other Europeans without British consent. Hyderabad (1798) was the first to accept it; Mysore, Awadh, the Peshwa and others followed.
• Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie, 1848–1856): if a ruler of a dependent state died without a natural heir, the state "lapsed" to the British; adopted sons were not recognised as heirs. Annexed: Satara (1848), Jaitpur, Sambalpur, Baghat, Udaipur (Chhattisgarh), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854).
• Awadh was annexed in 1856 on the charge of misgovernment.
• Administration: Regulating Act 1773, Pitt's India Act 1784, Charter Acts (1813, 1833, 1853); Permanent Settlement (1793, Cornwallis), Ryotwari, Mahalwari systems.

Important terms

• Diwani – right to collect revenue.
• Dual Government – Company held revenue, Nawab held administration without power.
• Subsidiary Alliance – treaty making Indian states dependent on British troops.
• Doctrine of Lapse – annexation of states without natural heirs.
• Resident – British agent at an Indian court.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the significance of the Battle of Plassey?

In 1757 the English defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah. It made them king-makers in Bengal and gave them wealth, which became the base of British expansion in India.

Q2. What was the Doctrine of Lapse?

It was Lord Dalhousie's policy under which a dependent state whose ruler died without a natural heir was annexed by the British. Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed this way.

Q3. Explain Wellesley's Subsidiary Alliance.

• Terms: British troops, subsidy or territory, Resident, no foreign relations.
• States: Hyderabad first, then Mysore, Awadh, Peshwa (1802).
• Benefits to British: army at Indian cost, control of states.
• Effects on states: loss of independence, financial ruin.

Q4. Describe the Anglo-Maratha Wars.

• First war; Treaty of Salbai.
• Treaty of Bassein; second war.
• Third war; Khadki, Koregaon, Sitabuldi.
• End of Peshwai, 1818.
• Causes of Maratha defeat: disunity, weak leadership after Nana Phadnavis, inferior artillery organisation.

Q5. Explain the significance of the Battle of Buxar.

• Combined Indian forces defeated.
• More decisive than Plassey (won by military skill).
• Treaty of Allahabad, 1765.
• Diwani rights; Mughal emperor under British protection.
• Company became a political power in north India.

Exam tip

Link each ruler with his policy: Clive (Governor of Bengal; Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General in 1773) – Dual Government, Wellesley – Subsidiary Alliance, Dalhousie – Doctrine of Lapse.

Quick summary

After gaining the Diwani of Bengal (1765), the East India Company turned from a trader into a ruler collecting land revenue. It introduced new land settlements – Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari and Mahalwari – which aimed at maximum revenue. Its trade policies pushed commercial crops, ruined Indian handicrafts (de-industrialisation) and caused a continuous drain of wealth to Britain.

Key points

• Dual Government (1765–1772): the Company held revenue rights while the Nawab kept administrative responsibility; this caused misrule and contributed to the terrible Bengal famine of 1770.
• Permanent Settlement (1793), Lord Cornwallis, in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa: zamindars became owners of land; the revenue was fixed forever (about ten-elevenths of the rent went to the government). The Sunset Law sold estates if revenue was not paid on time. Peasants became tenants at the zamindar's mercy.
• Ryotwari system: introduced by Thomas Munro and Alexander Read in Madras (from 1820) and later in Bombay Presidency (survey settlement of Wingate and Goldsmid, 1830s). The ryot (cultivator) was the owner and paid revenue directly to the state; rates were revised every 20–30 years and were often very high.
• Mahalwari system: proposed by Holt Mackenzie (1822) for the North-Western Provinces, central India and Punjab; the mahal (village or estate) as a whole was responsible for revenue; revised by R. M. Bird and James Thomason.
• Commercialisation of agriculture: indigo, cotton, jute, opium, tea and sugarcane were grown for export and for British industry. Farmers depended on moneylenders and markets; food crops declined in places, and famines became severe.
• De-industrialisation: Indian handicrafts declined because of loss of royal patronage, cheap British machine-made goods, high duties on Indian goods in Britain but almost free entry of British goods into India, and railways that carried goods into the interior.
• India changed from an exporter of finished cloth to an exporter of raw materials and an importer of manufactured goods.
• Drain of wealth: salaries, pensions and profits sent to Britain without any return. Dadabhai Naoroji explained this in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901).
• Railways (from 1853), roads and the telegraph served British economic and military needs.

Important terms

• Diwani – the right to collect revenue.
• Zamindar – landlord responsible for revenue.
• Ryot – peasant cultivator.
• Mahal – a village or estate taken as a revenue unit.
• De-industrialisation – decline of traditional industries.
• Drain theory – the idea that British rule took India's wealth away without return.

Important dates and people

• 1765 – Diwani of Bengal.
• 1770 – Bengal famine.
• 1793 – Permanent Settlement (Cornwallis).
• 1820 – Ryotwari in Madras (Munro).
• 1822 – Mahalwari (Holt Mackenzie).

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Sunset Law?

A rule of the Permanent Settlement that a zamindar's estate would be auctioned if the revenue was not paid by sunset of the fixed date.

Q2. Who introduced the Ryotwari system?

Thomas Munro (with Alexander Read) in the Madras Presidency.

Q3. Compare the Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems.

• Area and year.
• Who paid and who owned land.
• Fixed or revisable revenue.
• Effects on peasants.
• A comparison table is ideal.

Q4. Explain the causes and effects of de-industrialisation in India.

• Causes listed above.
• Effects: unemployment, pressure on agriculture, ruralisation.
• Change in India's trade.

Q5. Discuss the economic impact of Company rule on India.

• Land revenue systems.
• Commercialisation and famines.
• Decline of crafts.
• Drain of wealth; railways.

Exam tip

Always present the three land systems in a table. Mention Bombay's Ryotwari survey for Maharashtra and Naoroji for the drain theory.

Quick summary

As the East India Company became a ruling power, the British Parliament passed a series of Acts to control it. The Regulating Act (1773) began parliamentary control; Pitt's India Act (1784) created dual control; the Charter Acts of 1793, 1813, 1833 and 1853 gradually reduced the Company's commercial role and centralised administration; and the Government of India Act, 1858 ended Company rule and placed India under the Crown.

Key points

• Regulating Act, 1773: Governor of Bengal became Governor-General of Bengal (first: Warren Hastings) with a council of four; Bombay and Madras were placed under him; a Supreme Court was set up at Calcutta (1774, chief justice Elijah Impey); Company servants were barred from private trade and gifts. Weakness: the Governor-General could be outvoted by his council.
• Pitt's India Act, 1784: created a Board of Control (government ministers) to control political matters, while the Court of Directors handled commerce – the system of dual control; the Governor-General's council was reduced to three.
• Act of 1786: allowed the Governor-General (Cornwallis) to override his council in special cases.
• Charter Act, 1793: renewed the Company's charter for 20 years.
• Charter Act, 1813: ended the Company's trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade with China; allowed missionaries into India; set aside one lakh rupees a year for education.
• Charter Act, 1833: the Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-General of India (first: Lord William Bentinck); the Company stopped all trade and became a purely administrative body; a Law Member (Macaulay) was added and a Law Commission set up; it declared that no Indian should be denied office because of religion, birth or colour.
• Charter Act, 1853: separated the legislative and executive work of the council; introduced open competition for the Indian Civil Service; the charter was not renewed for a fixed period.
• Government of India Act, 1858 (after the Revolt of 1857): Company rule ended; India came under the British Crown; a Secretary of State for India with a Council of India (15 members) in London; the Governor-General also became Viceroy (first: Lord Canning).
• Queen Victoria's Proclamation (1 November 1858) promised religious tolerance, respect for princes' rights and equal opportunity in government jobs.

Important terms

• Board of Control – body of British ministers controlling the Company's political affairs (1784).
• Court of Directors – the Company's governing body in London.
• Dual control – sharing of control between the Crown and the Company.
• Charter – the official permission to trade, renewed by Parliament.
• Viceroy – the Crown's representative in India.

Important dates and people

• 1773 – Regulating Act; Warren Hastings.
• 1784 – Pitt's India Act.
• 1813, 1833, 1853 – Charter Acts.
• 1858 – Government of India Act; Lord Canning first Viceroy.

5 important questions

Q1. Who was the first Governor-General of India?

Lord William Bentinck, under the Charter Act of 1833.

Q2. What was the Board of Control?

A body of British government ministers created by Pitt's India Act (1784) to supervise the Company's political, military and revenue affairs.

Q3. Explain the main provisions of the Regulating Act of 1773.

• Governor-General and council.
• Control over Bombay and Madras.
• Supreme Court.
• Defects.

Q4. Describe the importance of the Charter Acts of 1813, 1833 and 1853.

• End of monopoly; missionaries; education.
• Governor-General of India; end of trade; Law Member.
• Separation of legislature; ICS competition.

Q5. Write a note on the Government of India Act, 1858.

• Background: Revolt of 1857.
• Provisions.
• Queen's Proclamation.
• Significance.

Exam tip

Make a timeline 1773 → 1784 → 1813 → 1833 → 1853 → 1858 with two provisions each. It covers almost every question on this topic.

Quick summary

Long before the Congress was formed, peasants and tribal communities rose against Company rule. Heavy land revenue, moneylenders, loss of forest rights and outsiders (dikus) entering tribal lands caused many local revolts. They were mostly crushed, but they showed deep anger against colonial rule and fed later national movements. Maharashtra and Vidarbha had their own uprisings by the Bhils, Ramoshis, Kolis and Gonds.

Key points

• Causes: high revenue demand and harsh collection; new land laws that let land pass to moneylenders; forest laws closing access to forests; exploitation by zamindars, traders and officials; attacks on tribal customs and self-rule.
• Sanyasi and Fakir revolt (c. 1763–1800, Bengal) – wandering monks resisted Company taxes after the 1770 famine.
• Paika rebellion (1817, Odisha) under Bakshi Jagabandhu.
• Kol uprising (1831–32, Chotanagpur) against outsiders taking tribal land.
• Santhal Hul (1855–56, Rajmahal hills) led by Sidhu and Kanhu against zamindars, moneylenders and police; a separate Santhal Parganas district was later created.
• Maharashtra: Bhil revolts in Khandesh (from 1818) – the British formed a Bhil Corps to win them over; Ramoshi revolt led by Umaji Naik (1826–1832) near Pune, who was hanged in 1832; Koli risings in the Sahyadri.
• Vidarbha: Gond chief Baburao Shedmake of Chandrapur district rose against the British in 1858 and was hanged at Chandrapur.
• Indigo revolt (1859–60, Bengal): peasants refused to grow indigo for European planters; the play Nil Darpan (Dinabandhu Mitra) exposed the planters.
• Deccan Riots (1875) in Pune and Ahmadnagar districts: peasants attacked moneylenders and burnt their bonds; the government passed the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act (1879).
• Vasudev Balwant Phadke (1879) organised Ramoshis and others in an armed revolt in Maharashtra.
• Munda Ulgulan (1899–1900) led by Birsa Munda, who called for an end to outsider rule; it led to the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908).
• Nature: local, led by traditional or religious leaders, poorly armed, without all-India links – but courageous and widely supported.

Important terms

• Diku – outsider (trader, moneylender, official) in tribal areas.
• Hul / Ulgulan – Santhal and Munda words for rebellion.
• Moneylender (sawkar) – lender who often took peasants' land through debt.
• Corps – a military unit (e.g. Bhil Corps).

Important dates and people

• 1817 – Paika rebellion.
• 1826–1832 – Umaji Naik.
• 1855–56 – Santhal Hul.
• 1858 – Baburao Shedmake.
• 1875 – Deccan Riots; 1879 – Phadke's revolt.
• 1899–1900 – Birsa Munda.

5 important questions

Q1. Who led the Santhal rebellion?

Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, in 1855–56.

Q2. What were the Deccan Riots?

Attacks by peasants of Pune and Ahmadnagar districts on moneylenders in 1875, to destroy debt bonds; they led to the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act of 1879.

Q3. Explain the causes of peasant and tribal revolts in the 19th century.

• Revenue and land laws.
• Moneylenders and outsiders.
• Forest laws.
• Cultural interference.

Q4. Write a note on revolts in Maharashtra against British rule.

• Bhils of Khandesh.
• Umaji Naik and the Ramoshis.
• Gond rising of Baburao Shedmake.
• Deccan Riots; Vasudev Balwant Phadke.

Q5. Assess the nature and importance of tribal revolts.

• Leaders and aims.
• Methods and weaknesses.
• Government response and laws.
• Contribution to the freedom struggle.

Exam tip

Learn at least three Maharashtra or Vidarbha examples (Umaji Naik, Baburao Shedmake, the Deccan Riots); they strengthen answers on popular resistance.

Quick summary

The Revolt of 1857 was the first large-scale armed uprising against the rule of the East India Company. It began as a mutiny of Indian soldiers (sepoys) at Meerut on 10 May 1857 and spread to many parts of north and central India. It failed, but it ended Company rule: in 1858 the British Crown took over the government of India.

Key points

• Political causes: annexations under the Doctrine of Lapse (Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur) and of Awadh (1856); ending of pensions and titles (Nana Saheb's pension stopped; plan to end the Mughal title).
• Economic causes: heavy land revenue, loss of land by peasants and zamindars, ruin of Indian handicrafts, drain of wealth.
• Social-religious causes: fear of conversion, social reforms seen as interference (e.g. Widow Remarriage Act 1856), racial discrimination.
• Military causes: low pay and poor promotion for sepoys, General Service Enlistment Act (1856) requiring service overseas, withdrawal of foreign service allowance.
• Immediate cause: the new Enfield rifle cartridges, rumoured to be greased with cow and pig fat, which had to be bitten.
• Mangal Pandey attacked officers at Barrackpore on 29 March 1857 and was hanged.
• On 10 May 1857 sepoys at Meerut rebelled, marched to Delhi, and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar emperor of India.
• Centres and leaders:

• Rani Lakshmibai died fighting near Gwalior in June 1858. Tatya Tope was captured and hanged in 1859.
• In Maharashtra and the Deccan there were smaller outbreaks; in Vidarbha, sepoys and local chiefs resisted in some places.
• Causes of failure: limited area (south and east largely calm), lack of unity and common plan, no central leadership, poor weapons, many rulers (e.g. Sindhia, Nizam) supported the British, British control of communications (telegraph) and navy.
• Results: Government of India Act 1858 – Company rule ended; India placed under the Crown; office of Secretary of State for India created; Governor-General became Viceroy. Queen Victoria's Proclamation (1 November 1858, read at Allahabad) promised no more annexations and religious tolerance. Army reorganised (more European troops, "divide and rule").
• Nature – debated: "Sepoy Mutiny" (many British writers), "First War of Independence" (V. D. Savarkar, 1909), a "conspiracy" or a feudal reaction (other views). R. C. Majumdar said it was neither the first nor national nor a war of independence. Most historians today see it as a broad popular revolt with sepoy, peasant and princely participation.

Important terms

• Sepoy – Indian soldier in the Company army.
• Enfield rifle – new rifle whose greased cartridges sparked the revolt.
• Viceroy – representative of the Crown in India after 1858.
• Proclamation – official announcement (Queen Victoria, 1858).

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the immediate cause of the Revolt of 1857?

The greased cartridges of the new Enfield rifle. Sepoys believed they were greased with cow and pig fat, which hurt both Hindu and Muslim religious feelings.

Q2. Who was Rani Lakshmibai?

She was the queen of Jhansi, whose state was annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse. She led the revolt in Jhansi and died fighting the British near Gwalior in 1858.

Q3. Explain the causes of the Revolt of 1857.

• Political – annexations.
• Economic – revenue, handicrafts ruin.
• Social-religious – fear of conversion.
• Military – grievances of sepoys.
• Immediate – greased cartridges.

Q4. Why did the Revolt of 1857 fail?

• Limited spread.
• Lack of unity and plan.
• No common leader or ideology.
• Inferior arms.
• Support of many princes to British.
• British resources, telegraph, navy.

Q5. Discuss the results of the Revolt of 1857.

• End of Company rule; Act of 1858.
• Secretary of State; Viceroy.
• Queen's Proclamation.
• Army reorganisation; divide and rule.
• End of the Mughal dynasty.
• Inspired later nationalism.

Exam tip

For "nature of the revolt" questions, present at least three views (Mutiny, War of Independence, popular revolt) and conclude with your balanced opinion.

Quick summary

In the 19th century, Indian thinkers started movements to reform society and religion, inspired by Western education, rational thinking and India's own traditions. They opposed sati, child marriage, caste discrimination and superstition, and worked for women's education and widow remarriage. Maharashtra was a major centre, with Mahatma Jyotirao Phule, Savitribai Phule, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and others.

Key points

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy (called the "Father of Indian Renaissance") founded the Brahmo Samaj (1828). He opposed sati; Lord William Bentinck banned sati in 1829.
• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar worked for widow remarriage; the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856 was passed.
• Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj (1875) in Bombay; slogan "Go back to the Vedas"; book Satyarth Prakash; started shuddhi.
• Swami Vivekananda, disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, founded the Ramakrishna Mission (1897); famous speech at the Chicago Parliament of Religions (1893).
• Prarthana Samaj (1867) in Bombay – Dr. Atmaram Pandurang, with Justice M. G. Ranade and R. G. Bhandarkar as leading members.
• Mahatma Jyotirao Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj on 24 September 1873; wrote Gulamgiri (1873) and Shetkaryacha Asud. He opposed caste and Brahmanical domination.
• Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule started a girls' school at Bhide Wada, Pune, in 1848. Savitribai is regarded as India's first woman teacher of modern times.
• Gopal Ganesh Agarkar – rationalist reformer; editor of Sudharak; a founder of the Deccan Education Society and later principal of Fergusson College, Pune.
• Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve – widow remarriage and women's education; founded the first women's university in India (SNDT Women's University, 1916).
• Pandita Ramabai – founded Sharada Sadan (1889) for widows.
• Lokhitwadi (Gopal Hari Deshmukh) wrote Shatapatre criticising social evils.
• Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur gave 50% reservation in government jobs to backward classes in 1902.
• Sir Syed Ahmad Khan started the Aligarh Movement; founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (1875), which became Aligarh Muslim University.
• Theosophical Society (1875, Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott); Annie Besant led it in India.
• Narayana Guru in Kerala: "One caste, one religion, one God for man".
• Impact: rational thinking, women's education, laws against social evils, decline of caste rigidity, growth of national consciousness.

Important terms

• Renaissance – revival of learning and reason.
• Sati – burning of a widow on her husband's pyre.
• Satyashodhak – "seeker of truth".
• Shuddhi – reconversion movement of the Arya Samaj.
• Rationalism – reliance on reason instead of blind faith.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who founded the Satyashodhak Samaj and why?

Mahatma Jyotirao Phule founded it in 1873 in Pune. Its aim was to free the lower castes from caste slavery and religious exploitation, and to spread education and equality.

Q2. What was Raja Ram Mohan Roy's contribution?

He founded the Brahmo Samaj (1828), fought against sati, supported women's rights and modern English education. Sati was banned in 1829 with his support.

Q3. Describe the contribution of Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule.

• First girls' school (1848).
• Schools for untouchables.
• Satyashodhak Samaj; Gulamgiri.
• Home for widows' children; opposed infanticide.
• Savitribai's poetry and service during plague (died 1897).

Q4. Explain the work of the Arya Samaj and Ramakrishna Mission.

• Arya Samaj: Dayanand, Vedas, anti-idol worship, DAV schools, shuddhi.
• Ramakrishna Mission: Vivekananda, service to humanity, Vedanta, self-confidence.
• Both revived pride in Indian culture.

Q5. Discuss the impact of social reform movements on Indian society.

• Laws against social evils.
• Spread of women's education.
• Challenge to caste.
• Rational and scientific outlook.
• Growth of regional press.
• Base for national movement.

Exam tip

Maharashtra examiners expect Phule, Agarkar, Ranade, Karve and Shahu Maharaj – include them even if the question is general.

Quick summary

In the 19th century Western (English) education and the press changed Indian society. The Company slowly accepted responsibility for education, and Macaulay's Minute (1835) and Wood's Despatch (1854) shaped an English-medium system with universities from 1857. Newspapers in English and Indian languages spread new ideas, criticised the government and became powerful tools of social reform and nationalism.

Key points

• Early institutions: Calcutta Madrasa (1781, Warren Hastings), Sanskrit College at Banaras (1791), Fort William College (1800).
• Charter Act 1813 set aside one lakh rupees a year for education.
• Orientalist–Anglicist debate: whether to support Sanskrit/Persian learning or English education.
• Macaulay's Minute (2 February 1835) favoured English education; Lord William Bentinck made English the medium of higher education (1835). The downward filtration theory expected education to spread from the upper classes to the masses.
• Wood's Despatch (1854), called the "Magna Carta of English education in India": education departments in provinces, grants-in-aid, vernacular primary schools, teacher training, women's education, and universities.
• Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were founded in 1857.
• Hunter Commission (1882) stressed primary education; Curzon's Indian Universities Act (1904) increased government control.
• Maharashtra: Elphinstone College (Bombay); Mahatma Jotirao and Savitribai Phule started a girls' school in Pune (1848); the Deccan Education Society (1884) founded Fergusson College (1885).
• Press: Hicky's Bengal Gazette (1780) – first newspaper in India. Raja Ram Mohan Roy started Sambad Kaumudi (1821) and Mirat-ul-Akhbar (1822).
• Marathi press: Darpan (6 January 1832) by Balshastri Jambhekar, the first Marathi newspaper – the day is marked as Marathi Patrakar Din; Dnyanprakash (1849); Kesari (Marathi) and Mahratta (English) in 1881 by Tilak, Agarkar and Chiplunkar; Sudharak (Agarkar, 1888); Deenbandhu (1877, Satyashodhak); Dr Ambedkar's Mooknayak (1920).
• Other papers: Amrita Bazar Patrika (1868), The Hindu (1878).
• Press laws: Licensing Regulations (1823); Metcalfe freed the press in 1835 ("liberator of the Indian press"); Vernacular Press Act (1878, Lytton), repealed by Ripon in 1882.
• Impact: a new educated middle class, spread of reform ideas, criticism of British policy, and the rise of national consciousness.

Important terms

• Downward filtration – educating the upper classes so that knowledge would "filter down" to the masses.
• Grant-in-aid – government financial help to private schools.
• Vernacular – Indian regional language.
• Gagging Act – a popular name for the Vernacular Press Act of 1878.

Important dates and people

• 1780 – Hicky's Bengal Gazette.
• 1832 – Darpan (Balshastri Jambhekar).
• 1835 – Macaulay's Minute; Metcalfe frees the press.
• 1848 – Phules' girls' school; 1854 – Wood's Despatch; 1857 – three universities.
• 1878 – Vernacular Press Act; 1881 – Kesari and Mahratta.

5 important questions

Q1. Why is Wood's Despatch called the Magna Carta of English education?

Because it gave the first complete plan for education in India, from primary schools to universities, including women's and vernacular education.

Q2. Which was the first Marathi newspaper?

Darpan, started by Balshastri Jambhekar on 6 January 1832.

Q3. Trace the growth of Western education in India up to 1857.

• Early colleges.
• 1813 grant; Orientalist–Anglicist debate.
• Macaulay's Minute.
• Wood's Despatch and universities.

Q4. Explain the role of the press in social and national awakening.

• Ram Mohan Roy and early papers.
• Marathi press: Darpan, Kesari, Sudharak, Deenbandhu.
• Criticism of the government.
• Press laws and resistance.

Q5. Assess the impact of Western education on Indian society.

• New middle class and leaders.
• Social reform and women's education.
• Nationalism.
• Limitations: neglect of masses, English bias.

Exam tip

Keep three pairs ready: 1835 – Macaulay, 1854 – Wood, 1878 – Lytton's Press Act. Add one Marathi newspaper with its founder in every press answer.

Quick summary

In the second half of the 19th century, Indians developed a feeling of common nationhood against British rule. Economic exploitation, Western education, the press, reform movements and racial discrimination all helped. The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. Its first phase was led by the Moderates (1885–1905); then the Extremists (Lal-Bal-Pal) rose, especially during the Swadeshi movement after the Partition of Bengal (1905).

Key points

• Causes of rise of nationalism: political and administrative unity under British rule; economic exploitation (Drain theory of Dadabhai Naoroji, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India); modern education and English as a common language; railways, post and telegraph; the press (Kesari, Maratha, Amrita Bazar Patrika, The Hindu); rediscovery of India's past; social reform; racial arrogance (e.g. Ilbert Bill controversy, 1883); repressive policies of Lord Lytton (Vernacular Press Act 1878, Arms Act 1878, Delhi Durbar during famine).
• Pre-Congress associations: British Indian Association (1851), Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870) with Justice Ranade, Indian Association (1876, Surendranath Banerjee), Bombay Presidency Association (1885).
• Indian National Congress founded on 28 December 1885 at Bombay (Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College). A. O. Hume, a retired British officer, helped form it. First president: W. C. Bonnerjee; 72 delegates attended.
• Moderates (1885–1905): Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee, Justice M. G. Ranade. Methods: petitions, prayers, protests (the "3 Ps"), faith in British justice. Demands: expansion of legislative councils, Indianisation of services, reduction of military expenses, civil liberties.
• Achievement of Moderates: spread political awareness; exposed economic exploitation; Indian Councils Act 1892.
• Extremists: Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal (Lal-Bal-Pal), Aurobindo Ghosh. Tilak declared: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it."
• Tilak used the Ganeshotsav (1893) and Shivjayanti (1895) festivals to unite people; edited Kesari (Marathi) and Mahratta (English).
• Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon, announced in July and effected on 16 October 1905 – seen as "divide and rule".
• Swadeshi and Boycott movement: boycott of foreign goods, burning of foreign cloth, national education, swadeshi industries. Rabindranath Tagore's songs; Bande Mataram became the slogan.
• Calcutta session 1906 (president Dadabhai Naoroji) adopted the goal of Swaraj.
• Surat Split (1907): Congress divided into Moderates and Extremists.
• Muslim League founded in 1906 at Dacca.
• Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) introduced separate electorates for Muslims.
• Partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911; capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.
• Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress and Muslim League joined; Moderates and Extremists reunited. Home Rule Leagues (1916) of Tilak and Annie Besant.

Important terms

• Drain theory – outflow of India's wealth to Britain without return.
• Moderates / Extremists – two groups in early Congress.
• Swadeshi – use of goods made in one's own country.
• Boycott – refusal to buy foreign goods.
• Separate electorate – voters of a community electing their own representatives.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Drain Theory?

Dadabhai Naoroji argued that a large part of India's wealth was being drained to Britain through salaries, pensions, profits and "home charges" without any return. This caused India's poverty.

Q2. What was the Surat Split?

At the Surat session of Congress in 1907, Moderates and Extremists differed over methods and leadership, and the Congress split into two groups. They reunited in 1916.

Q3. Explain the factors responsible for the rise of Indian nationalism.

• Political unity and administration.
• Economic exploitation.
• Western education.
• Press and literature.
• Social reform movements.
• Racial discrimination; Lytton's policies.

Q4. Compare the Moderates and the Extremists.

• Leaders.
• Aim: reforms within British rule vs Swaraj.
• Methods: petitions vs boycott, swadeshi, mass action.
• Faith in British vs self-reliance.
• Social base: educated elite vs wider masses.

Q5. Describe the Swadeshi movement.

• Cause: Partition of Bengal (1905).
• Boycott of foreign goods; bonfires.
• Swadeshi industries, national schools.
• Role of Tilak, Lajpat Rai, Pal, Aurobindo, Tagore.
• Results: mass participation; annulment in 1911.

Exam tip

Tilak's slogan and the 1905–1911 timeline are almost always asked; learn them exactly.