मानसशास्त्र Psychology

Quick summary

Being in a group changes how we perform and decide. The presence of others can improve or weaken performance (social facilitation), people may work less in groups (social loafing), and crowds can make people lose self-awareness (deindividuation). Groups make many important decisions; they can be better than individuals but also fall into traps like groupthink and polarisation.

Key points

• Social facilitation (सामाजिक सुकरता) – Norman Triplett (1898) found cyclists rode faster when racing others than alone; this was among the first social psychology experiments.
• Zajonc's drive theory (1965) – the presence of others increases arousal; this improves performance on simple or well-learned tasks but harms performance on complex or new tasks.
• Evaluation apprehension (Cottrell) – arousal comes from worry about being judged.
• Social loafing (सामाजिक आळस) – people put in less effort in a group task where individual work is not identified. Max Ringelmann found that in rope-pulling each person pulled less as group size increased; Latané, Williams and Harkins (1979) studied it with clapping and shouting.
• Reducing social loafing: make each person's contribution identifiable, keep groups small, give meaningful tasks, build cohesiveness.
• Deindividuation – loss of self-awareness and personal responsibility in crowds, often with anonymity, leading to mob behaviour (Zimbardo; Diener).
• Group decision making – advantages: more knowledge, more ideas, acceptance of decisions; disadvantages: time-consuming, pressure to conform, domination by a few.
• Group polarisation – after discussion, the group's view becomes more extreme in the direction it already leaned (Moscovici and Zavalloni, 1969). Risky shift (James Stoner, 1961) is one form.
• Groupthink (Irving Janis, 1972) – symptoms: illusion of invulnerability, belief in group's morality, stereotyping outsiders, self-censorship, illusion of unanimity, pressure on dissenters, "mindguards". Example: the USA's Bay of Pigs invasion (1961).
• Preventing groupthink: leader stays impartial, a "devil's advocate", invite outside experts, divide into sub-groups, second-chance meeting.
• Techniques for better decisions: brainstorming, nominal group technique, Delphi technique (experts answer anonymously over rounds), majority vote, consensus.

Important terms

• Arousal – a state of physiological alertness.
• Free-rider effect – benefiting from group effort without contributing.
• Risky shift – groups making riskier decisions than individuals.
• Devil's advocate – a person who deliberately argues against the group's view.
• Decision rule – the method used to reach a group decision (majority, unanimity).

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is social loafing?

Social loafing is the tendency of individuals to put in less effort when working in a group than when working alone, especially when individual contributions are not measured.

Q2. What is group polarisation?

Group discussion strengthens the group's initial tendency, so the final decision is more extreme than the average of members' original views.

Q3. Explain social facilitation with Zajonc's theory.

• Triplett's cyclists experiment.
• Zajonc: presence of others → arousal → dominant response.
• Simple tasks improve, complex tasks worsen.
• Evaluation apprehension and distraction-conflict explanations.

Q4. Describe groupthink, its symptoms and remedies.

• Janis's definition and conditions (high cohesion, strong leader, isolation, stress).
• Eight symptoms.
• Example of Bay of Pigs.
• Remedies listed above.

Q5. Discuss the merits and limitations of group decision making.

• Merits: pooled knowledge, creativity, commitment to decisions.
• Limitations: conformity, polarisation, groupthink, slow process, domination.
• Techniques: brainstorming, nominal group, Delphi.
• Conclude with conditions where groups beat individuals.

Exam tip

Remember the pair "simple task – better, complex task – worse" for social facilitation; it is the most commonly tested point.

Quick summary

Leadership is the process of influencing a group of people towards achieving common goals. A leader guides, motivates and coordinates members. Psychologists have explained leadership through trait theory, behavioural (style) theories, contingency theories and transformational leadership. Lewin's classic study compared authoritarian, democratic and laissez-faire leaders.

Key points

• Leadership (नेतृत्व) is the ability to influence others' behaviour towards group goals.
• A leader is not always the person with formal authority; informal leaders also emerge in groups.
• Functions of a leader: planning, decision making, coordinating, motivating, representing the group, resolving conflicts, acting as a role model.
• Great man / trait theory: leaders are born with special traits such as intelligence, confidence, dominance, sociability and integrity. Later research (e.g. Stogdill's review) found no single set of traits that always makes a leader.
• Kurt Lewin, Lippitt and White (1939) studied boys' clubs with three leadership styles: authoritarian (autocratic), democratic and laissez-faire.
• Ohio State studies: two dimensions — initiating structure (task-oriented) and consideration (people-oriented).
• Fred Fiedler's contingency model: effectiveness depends on the match between the leader's style (task or relationship oriented, measured by the LPC scale) and the situation (leader–member relations, task structure, position power).
• Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership: telling, selling, participating, delegating, depending on followers' readiness.
• Transformational leadership (James MacGregor Burns, Bernard Bass): inspires followers to go beyond self-interest; transactional leadership works through rewards and punishments.
• Indian examples often discussed: Mahatma Gandhi as a charismatic and transformational leader; Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as a leader of social change.

Important terms

• Authoritarian leader – takes all decisions alone; strict control.
• Democratic leader – involves members in decisions; encourages participation.
• Laissez-faire leader – gives complete freedom; little guidance.
• Charismatic leader – leads by personal magnetism and vision.
• LPC (Least Preferred Co-worker) scale – Fiedler's tool to measure leadership style.
• Emergent leader – becomes leader naturally through group acceptance.

Important thinkers and theories

• Behavioural theories focus on what leaders do; trait theories on what leaders are; contingency theories on the situation.

5 important questions

Q1. Define leadership.

Leadership is the process by which one person influences the thoughts and behaviour of group members to achieve common goals.

Q2. What is a laissez-faire leader?

A laissez-faire leader gives members full freedom to make decisions, provides little direction and rarely interferes in the group's work.

Q3. Explain the functions of a leader.

• Sets goals and plans.
• Makes decisions and solves problems.
• Motivates and guides members.
• Coordinates group activities.
• Represents the group to outsiders.
• Maintains discipline and resolves conflicts.

Q4. Describe Lewin's study of leadership styles.

• Boys' clubs led by trained adults using three styles.
• Authoritarian: dependent, aggressive members.
• Democratic: cooperative, satisfied members, best overall.
• Laissez-faire: poor work, disorganised.
• Conclusion: democratic leadership generally most effective.

Q5. Explain Fiedler's contingency theory.

• No single best style; depends on situation.
• Leader style: task-oriented (low LPC) or relationship-oriented (high LPC).
• Situational factors: leader–member relations, task structure, position power.
• Task-oriented leaders do best in very favourable or very unfavourable situations.
• Relationship-oriented leaders do best in moderately favourable situations.

Exam tip

Compare the three leadership styles in a table. In theory questions, move from trait → behavioural → contingency → transformational to show development.

Quick summary

Aggression is any behaviour intended to harm another person who does not want to be harmed. It can be physical or verbal, hostile or instrumental. Psychologists explain aggression through instinct theories (Freud, Lorenz), biological factors, the frustration–aggression hypothesis and social learning theory (Bandura). Aggression can be reduced through punishment, catharsis (with limits), training in social skills and reducing exposure to violent models.

Key points

• Aggression (आक्रमकता) is behaviour aimed at harming another living being who wants to avoid such harm.
• Hostile (emotional) aggression: the goal is to hurt, often from anger.
• Instrumental aggression: harm is a means to achieve another goal (e.g. robbery).
• Other types: physical vs verbal, direct vs indirect (relational), active vs passive.
• Freud: aggression comes from the death instinct (Thanatos).
• Konrad Lorenz (ethologist): aggression is an inborn fighting instinct that helps survival.
• Biological factors: hormones like testosterone, brain areas like the amygdala and hypothalamus, low serotonin, alcohol.
• Frustration–aggression hypothesis (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer and Sears, 1939): frustration always leads to some form of aggression. Berkowitz later revised it: frustration creates readiness, and aggressive cues (like weapons) trigger aggression (the "weapons effect").
• Social learning theory (Albert Bandura): aggression is learned by observing models. In the Bobo doll experiment (1961), children who watched an adult hit a doll later imitated this behaviour.
• Situational factors: heat, crowding, noise, provocation, media violence, alcohol.

Important terms

• Frustration – blocking of goal-directed behaviour.
• Displacement – directing aggression to a safer target than its real source.
• Catharsis – the idea that expressing aggression releases built-up anger; research shows it often does not reduce aggression.
• Modelling – learning by observing and imitating others.
• Desensitisation – reduced emotional reaction after repeated exposure to violence.
• Bullying – repeated aggression against a weaker person, including cyberbullying.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. Distinguish between hostile and instrumental aggression.

Hostile aggression aims mainly to hurt the victim, often out of anger. Instrumental aggression uses harm as a means to achieve some other goal, such as money or status.

Q2. What is the frustration–aggression hypothesis?

Proposed by Dollard and colleagues in 1939, it states that frustration always leads to aggression and aggression is always caused by frustration. It was later modified by Berkowitz.

Q3. Explain Bandura's Bobo doll experiment.

• Children watched an adult model behave aggressively or non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll.
• Later, children were left with toys including the doll.
• Those who saw the aggressive model imitated the same acts.
• Boys showed more physical aggression.
• Shows aggression is learned through modelling.

Q4. Explain the theories of aggression.

• Instinct theories: Freud, Lorenz.
• Biological: hormones, brain, genetics.
• Frustration–aggression and Berkowitz's revision.
• Social learning: modelling and reinforcement.
• Cognitive and general aggression model.

Q5. Suggest ways to control or reduce aggression.

• Punishment: should be prompt, certain and fair.
• Exposure to non-aggressive models.
• Training in social skills, anger management and empathy.
• Reducing media violence for children.
• Cognitive interventions: apology, calming down before reacting.
• Incompatible responses: humour, empathy.

Exam tip

Always define aggression with "intention to harm". Theories as a table with thinker and cause make a strong long answer.

Quick summary

Prosocial behaviour is any action that benefits another person, such as helping, sharing, donating and cooperating. Altruism is helping others without expecting any reward. Psychologists explain helping through evolutionary, social exchange, empathy–altruism and social norm theories. Latané and Darley's bystander studies show why people sometimes fail to help in emergencies.

Key points

• Prosocial behaviour (समाजोपयोगी वर्तन) includes helping, sharing, cooperating, comforting, donating and volunteering.
• Altruism is helping purely out of concern for others, with no expectation of reward.
• Evolutionary view: kin selection — we help relatives because they share our genes; reciprocal altruism — we help those who may help us back.
• Social exchange theory: people help when rewards (good feelings, praise) outweigh costs (time, danger).
• Empathy–altruism hypothesis (C. Daniel Batson): feeling empathy for a person leads to truly altruistic helping.
• Social norms: norm of reciprocity (help those who help us), norm of social responsibility (help those who depend on us), norm of equity.
• The Kitty Genovese case (New York, 1964) led Bibb Latané and John Darley to study bystander behaviour.
• Bystander effect: the more people present in an emergency, the less likely any one person is to help.
• Latané and Darley's five-step decision model: notice the event → interpret it as an emergency → take responsibility → decide how to help → provide help.
• Factors that increase helping: similarity to the victim, good mood, empathy, clear emergency, knowing how to help, fewer bystanders, rural settings.

Important terms

• Diffusion of responsibility – each bystander feels less personal responsibility when others are present.
• Pluralistic ignorance – each person looks at others' calm reactions and decides there is no emergency.
• Audience inhibition – fear of looking foolish in front of others.
• Empathy – understanding and sharing another person's feelings.
• Volunteerism – long-term planned helping, such as working for an NGO.

Important thinkers and theories

• Indian traditions of seva and daan (charity) and the Good Samaritan law protecting people who help road accident victims are examples of encouraging prosocial behaviour.

5 important questions

Q1. What is altruism?

Altruism is helping others out of genuine concern for their welfare, without expecting any reward or benefit in return.

Q2. Define the bystander effect.

The bystander effect is the finding that a person is less likely to help in an emergency when other people are present than when he or she is alone.

Q3. Explain the factors that influence helping behaviour.

• Situational: number of bystanders, clarity of emergency, time pressure, rural vs urban.
• Helper factors: mood, empathy, personality, skills, religious values.
• Victim factors: similarity, attractiveness, perceived deservingness.
• Cultural norms of responsibility and reciprocity.

Q4. Describe Latané and Darley's model of bystander intervention.

• Step 1: notice the event.
• Step 2: interpret it as an emergency (pluralistic ignorance may block).
• Step 3: assume responsibility (diffusion of responsibility may block).
• Step 4: know how to help.
• Step 5: decide to help and act.
• Background: Kitty Genovese case.

Q5. Explain theories of prosocial behaviour.

• Evolutionary: kin selection, reciprocal altruism.
• Social exchange: cost–reward analysis.
• Empathy–altruism hypothesis.
• Social norms theory.
• Social learning: learning helping from models.
• Ways to increase helping: education, role models, reducing ambiguity.

Exam tip

Learn the five steps of bystander intervention in order — it is the most frequently asked long question in this topic. Explain diffusion of responsibility with a simple example.

Quick summary

Human development is the pattern of change in physical, cognitive, emotional and social abilities from conception to death. It is shaped by both heredity (nature) and environment (nurture). Life is divided into stages — prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. Piaget's cognitive theory and Erikson's psychosocial theory are the most important theories of development.

Key points

• Development (विकास) means orderly, progressive changes over the lifespan. Growth means increase in size (quantitative); development includes qualitative changes too.
• Principles of development: continuous, follows a pattern, individual differences, interaction of heredity and environment.
• Direction: cephalocaudal (head to toe) and proximodistal (centre to outward).
• Stages: prenatal (conception to birth), infancy (birth to 2 years), early childhood (2–6), middle and late childhood (6–11/12), adolescence (about 12–18), early, middle and late adulthood (old age).
• Prenatal stage has three periods: germinal (first 2 weeks), embryonic (2–8 weeks) and foetal (8 weeks to birth).
• Teratogens are harmful agents (alcohol, drugs, some infections, radiation) that can damage the developing baby.
• Adolescence: puberty, rapid physical growth, identity search, peer influence.
• Old age: physical decline, retirement, loss of loved ones; but wisdom and life satisfaction can remain.
• Jean Piaget (Swiss psychologist): children actively build knowledge through assimilation and accommodation and pass through four cognitive stages.
• Erik Erikson: eight psychosocial stages, each with a crisis to resolve.

Important terms

• Maturation – changes due to biological unfolding, without learning.
• Schema – a mental framework for organising information (Piaget).
• Object permanence – knowing that objects exist even when not seen (develops in the sensorimotor stage).
• Conservation – understanding that quantity stays the same despite change in shape (concrete operational stage).
• Egocentrism – inability to see things from another's point of view (preoperational stage).
• Attachment – the strong emotional bond between infant and caregiver (John Bowlby; Mary Ainsworth's "strange situation").

Important thinkers and theories

Erikson's eight stages:

1. Trust vs mistrust (infancy)
2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt (early childhood)
3. Initiative vs guilt (preschool)
4. Industry vs inferiority (school age)
5. Identity vs role confusion (adolescence)
6. Intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood)
7. Generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood)
8. Integrity vs despair (old age)

5 important questions

Q1. Distinguish between growth and development.

Growth refers to quantitative increase in body size and weight. Development is broader and includes qualitative changes in abilities, thinking, emotions and behaviour.

Q2. What is object permanence?

It is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard or touched. It develops during Piaget's sensorimotor stage.

Q3. Explain the principles of development.

• Development is continuous and lifelong.
• Follows a sequence and pattern.
• Cephalocaudal and proximodistal directions.
• From general to specific responses.
• Individual differences in rate.
• Interaction of heredity and environment.

Q4. Explain Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

• Child as active learner; schemas.
• Assimilation, accommodation, equilibration.
• Four stages with ages and features.
• Educational uses: activity-based learning, readiness.
• Criticism: underestimated children's abilities, ignored culture.

Q5. Describe Erikson's psychosocial theory.

• Eight stages across life, each with a crisis.
• Successful resolution gives a virtue (e.g. hope, will, fidelity).
• Adolescence: identity vs role confusion.
• Adulthood: intimacy, generativity.
• Old age: integrity vs despair.
• Strength: covers whole lifespan; social focus.

Exam tip

Learn Piaget's stages as a table with ages and Erikson's eight stages in order. Questions on adolescence often ask for the identity crisis — link it to Erikson's fifth stage.

Quick summary

Life begins at conception, when a sperm fertilises an ovum. In about 38 weeks (around 40 weeks counted from the last menstrual period) a single cell becomes a baby, passing through the germinal, embryonic and foetal periods. Infancy (birth to about 2 years) is a time of very fast physical, motor, sensory, emotional and social growth, including the formation of attachment.

Key points

• Conception – union of sperm and ovum forms a zygote with 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). The 23rd pair decides sex: XX female, XY male.
• Germinal period (0–2 weeks) – rapid cell division; the zygote travels to the uterus and implants in its wall.
• Embryonic period (3rd–8th week) – major organs form (heart, brain, spinal cord); the most sensitive period to harm. Placenta and umbilical cord develop.
• Foetal period (9th week to birth) – growth and maturation of organs; movements felt ("quickening") around 16–20 weeks; age of viability about 22–24 weeks.
• Prenatal influences: mother's nutrition, age (under 18 or over 35 is riskier), stress, diseases (rubella, HIV, syphilis), Rh incompatibility, and teratogens – alcohol (foetal alcohol syndrome), tobacco, drugs, radiation, some medicines (thalidomide).
• Genetic disorders: Down syndrome (extra chromosome 21), Turner syndrome (XO), Klinefelter syndrome (XXY), phenylketonuria (PKU).
• Neonate (newborn, first 2–4 weeks): assessed by the Apgar score (Virginia Apgar, 1952 – heart rate, breathing, muscle tone, reflexes, colour; 0–10).
• Reflexes of newborn: rooting, sucking, Moro (startle), grasping, Babinski, stepping.
• Physical and motor growth in infancy follows cephalocaudal and proximodistal directions. Milestones (approximate): holds head up ~3 months, sits ~6 months, crawls ~8–9 months, walks ~12 months.
• Sensory abilities: newborns prefer faces, recognise mother's voice; Gibson and Walk's visual cliff (1960) showed depth perception in crawling infants.
• Language: crying → cooing (~2 months) → babbling (~6 months) → first words (~12 months) → two-word sentences (~18–24 months).
• Attachment: John Bowlby; Harry Harlow's monkeys preferred a soft cloth mother to a wire mother with milk; Mary Ainsworth's strange situation found secure, anxious-avoidant and anxious-resistant types (later disorganised was added).
• Erikson: infancy is the stage of trust vs mistrust.

Important terms

• Zygote – fertilised egg.
• Teratogen – any environmental agent that causes birth defects.
• Placenta – organ that passes food and oxygen from mother to foetus.
• Critical period – a time when an organ or ability is especially sensitive to influence.
• Stranger anxiety – fear of unfamiliar people, appears around 8 months.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is a teratogen?

A teratogen is any harmful agent, such as alcohol, nicotine, certain drugs, radiation or infections like rubella, that can damage the developing embryo or foetus.

Q2. What is the Apgar score?

It is a quick test of a newborn's condition at 1 and 5 minutes after birth, scoring heart rate, breathing, muscle tone, reflexes and colour from 0–2 each (total 0–10).

Q3. Describe the three periods of prenatal development.

• Germinal: 0–2 weeks, cell division, implantation.
• Embryonic: 3–8 weeks, organ formation, high sensitivity.
• Foetal: 9 weeks to birth, growth, movement, viability.

Q4. Explain the factors affecting prenatal development.

• Maternal nutrition, age, emotional state.
• Diseases and Rh factor.
• Teratogens: alcohol, smoking, drugs, radiation.
• Genetic and chromosomal abnormalities.
• Importance of prenatal care in India (ANC check-ups, iron and folic acid).

Q5. Write a note on the development of attachment in infancy.

• Bowlby's view and stages.
• Harlow's experiment.
• Ainsworth's strange situation and attachment types.
• Effects of secure attachment on later life.

Exam tip

Learn milestone ages as a ladder (3–6–9–12 months: head – sit – crawl – walk); a simple table of milestones makes answers clear.

Quick summary

Childhood runs from about 2 to 11 or 12 years and is divided into early childhood (preschool, 2–6) and middle and late childhood (school years, 6–11/12). Children grow steadily in body and motor skills, language explodes, thinking moves from pretend play to logical operations, and the self, emotions, friendships and gender roles develop. Parents, school and peers shape this period.

Key points

• Physical growth is slower and steadier than in infancy; brain reaches about 90% of adult weight by age 5–6.
• Motor skills: gross motor (running, jumping, cycling) and fine motor (drawing, writing, buttoning) improve; handedness becomes clear.
• Cognitive development (Piaget): early childhood = preoperational stage (symbolic play, egocentrism, animism, lack of conservation); middle childhood = concrete operational stage (conservation, classification, seriation, reversibility).
• Lev Vygotsky: learning happens through social interaction; zone of proximal development and scaffolding by adults.
• Language: vocabulary grows from about 200–300 words at 2 years to several thousand by 6; grammar and conversation skills develop.
• Emotional development: children learn to name and control emotions; fears (dark, animals) are common in preschool years.
• Social development: play moves from solitary and parallel play to associative and cooperative play (Mildred Parten, 1932). Friendships become based on trust and loyalty in later childhood.
• Erikson's stages: autonomy vs shame and doubt (about 1½–3 years), initiative vs guilt (3–6) and industry vs inferiority (6–12).
• Parenting styles (Diana Baumrind): authoritative (warm + firm; best outcomes), authoritarian (strict, cold), permissive (warm, few rules); Maccoby and Martin added neglectful/uninvolved.
• Gender development: gender identity (~2–3 years), gender stability and constancy (by ~6–7 years, Kohlberg); learned through modelling and culture.
• Moral development: Piaget's heteronomous morality (rules fixed by authority) changes to autonomous morality around 10 years.
• Common problems: bedwetting, temper tantrums, learning disabilities, ADHD, school phobia, effects of excess screen time.

Important terms

• Egocentrism – seeing the world only from one's own point of view.
• Animism – believing lifeless objects have feelings ("the moon is following me").
• Scaffolding – temporary help given by an adult that is reduced as the child becomes able.
• Peer group – children of similar age who influence each other.
• Self-esteem – in later childhood based on comparison with peers in studies and sports.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is the zone of proximal development?

It is the gap between what a child can do alone and what he can do with help from an adult or more skilled peer (Vygotsky).

Q2. Name Baumrind's parenting styles.

Authoritative, authoritarian and permissive; neglectful was added later. Authoritative parenting gives the best results.

Q3. Describe cognitive development in childhood.

• Preoperational features: symbolic thought, egocentrism (three-mountain task), animism, centration, no conservation.
• Concrete operational: conservation, reversibility, classification, seriation.
• Vygotsky's view.
• Implications for teaching.

Q4. Explain social and emotional development in childhood.

• Erikson's three childhood stages.
• Parten's stages of play.
• Friendship and peer groups.
• Emotional regulation and empathy.

Q5. Discuss the role of parents and school in child development.

• Parenting styles with effects.
• Home environment, discipline, love.
• School: teachers, curriculum, peer interaction, mid-day meal and health.
• Problems: academic pressure, screen time; remedies.

Exam tip

For childhood answers, link each age group to its Piaget stage and its Erikson stage — a small two-column table shows the examiner you can connect theories.

Quick summary

Cognitive development is the growth of thinking, reasoning and understanding; moral development is the growth of a sense of right and wrong. Jean Piaget explained cognitive growth through four stages and processes like assimilation and accommodation, while Lev Vygotsky stressed social and cultural learning. Lawrence Kohlberg, building on Piaget, described three levels and six stages of moral reasoning, and Carol Gilligan added an ethic of care.

Key points

• Piaget's key processes: schema (mental framework), assimilation (fitting new information into an existing schema), accommodation (changing the schema to fit new information), equilibration (balance between the two).
• Piaget's four stages: sensorimotor (0–2: object permanence), preoperational (2–7: symbolic thought, egocentrism, no conservation), concrete operational (7–11: conservation, reversibility, classification), formal operational (11+: abstract and hypothetical thinking, hypothetico-deductive reasoning).
• Criticism of Piaget: underestimated children's abilities, stages less rigid than he thought, ignored culture.
• Vygotsky (sociocultural theory): zone of proximal development, scaffolding, language and private speech guide thinking.
• Piaget's moral development: heteronomous morality (until about 10 years: rules are fixed; judge by consequences) and autonomous morality (rules can be changed by agreement; judge by intentions).
• Kohlberg (1958 onward) used moral dilemmas such as the Heinz dilemma (should Heinz steal a drug to save his dying wife?). He scored the reasoning, not the answer.
• Level 1 – Pre-conventional: Stage 1 obedience and punishment orientation; Stage 2 individualism and exchange ("what's in it for me").
• Level 2 – Conventional: Stage 3 good boy–good girl orientation (approval of others); Stage 4 law-and-order orientation.
• Level 3 – Post-conventional: Stage 5 social contract and individual rights; Stage 6 universal ethical principles.
• Most adolescents and adults reason at the conventional level; few reach Stage 6.
• Carol Gilligan (1982) criticised Kohlberg for male bias and proposed an ethic of care (relationships, responsibility) alongside his ethic of justice.
• Factors: parenting (inductive discipline), peer discussion, education, culture, religion.

Important terms

• Object permanence – objects continue to exist when out of sight.
• Conservation – quantity remains same despite change in shape or arrangement.
• Hypothetico-deductive reasoning – forming and testing hypotheses systematically.
• Moral dilemma – a situation where moral values conflict.
• Moral realism – young child's belief that rules are fixed and unchangeable.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. Differentiate between assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation is fitting new experiences into an existing schema (calling a cow a "big dog"). Accommodation is changing the schema to include the new experience (forming a new schema for "cow").

Q2. What is the Heinz dilemma?

It is Kohlberg's moral story in which Heinz must decide whether to steal an expensive drug to save his dying wife. A person's reasons for the answer show his stage of moral reasoning.

Q3. Explain Piaget's stages of cognitive development.

• Four stages with ages and main features.
• Examples: object permanence, three-mountain task, conservation of liquid, abstract reasoning.
• Educational implications.
• Criticism.

Q4. Describe Kohlberg's theory of moral development.

• Method: moral dilemmas, focus on reasoning.
• Three levels and six stages with examples.
• Sequence is fixed; not everyone reaches the top.
• Criticism: male bias (Gilligan), cultural bias, judgement vs behaviour.

Q5. Compare Piaget and Vygotsky.

• Piaget: child as little scientist, stages, individual discovery.
• Vygotsky: social interaction, culture, ZPD, language leads development.
• Both: active learner.
• Classroom implications: discovery learning vs guided/cooperative learning.

Exam tip

Write Kohlberg's six stages as a table with levels; even in a 5-mark answer the table can earn nearly full marks.

Quick summary

Adolescence is the transition from childhood to adulthood, roughly 12 to 18 years (the WHO uses 10–19). It begins with puberty and brings rapid physical changes, new abstract thinking, a search for identity, strong peer influence and sometimes emotional turmoil. G. Stanley Hall called it a period of "storm and stress", but most adolescents pass through it successfully with support.

Key points

• Adolescence (किशोरावस्था) – from the Latin adolescere, "to grow into maturity".
• G. Stanley Hall (1904) – the "father of adolescent psychology"; described adolescence as "storm and stress". Margaret Mead's studies in Samoa suggested culture decides how stormy it is.
• Puberty – sexual maturation controlled by hormones (estrogen, testosterone) from the pituitary and gonads. Primary sex characteristics: reproductive organs; secondary: breasts, facial hair, voice change, body hair. Growth spurt – girls about 2 years earlier than boys. Menarche in girls; spermarche in boys.
• Cognitive development: Piaget's formal operational stage – abstract, hypothetical and logical thinking.
• Adolescent egocentrism (David Elkind): imaginary audience (feeling everyone is watching) and personal fable (feeling unique and invulnerable, which leads to risk-taking).
• Identity: Erikson's stage identity vs role confusion. James Marcia's identity statuses: identity diffusion (no exploration, no commitment), foreclosure (commitment without exploration – e.g. accepting parents' career choice), moratorium (exploring, not yet committed), identity achievement (explored and committed).
• Social development: peers become very important; friendships are intimate; peer pressure can be positive or negative; parent–adolescent conflict usually over small daily issues.
• Emotional changes: mood swings, sensitivity, self-consciousness, concern with body image.
• Problems: exam stress and career anxiety, depression and suicide risk, substance use, eating disorders, internet and gaming addiction, delinquency, early sexual activity.
• Brain development: the limbic system (emotion) matures earlier than the prefrontal cortex (self-control), which develops into the mid-20s.
• Helping adolescents: open communication, authoritative parenting, life-skills and sex education, career guidance, counselling, positive role models (e.g. India's Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram, 2014).

Important terms

• Puberty – period of rapid physical and sexual maturation.
• Menarche – first menstrual period.
• Imaginary audience – belief that one is the centre of others' attention.
• Personal fable – belief that one's experiences are unique and that nothing bad will happen to oneself.
• Identity crisis – period of confusion about who one is (Erikson).
• Peer pressure – influence of age-mates to behave in certain ways.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is the personal fable?

It is an adolescent's belief that he is unique and invulnerable — that no one else feels as he does and that bad things will not happen to him. It can lead to risky behaviour.

Q2. Why is adolescence called a period of "storm and stress"?

G. Stanley Hall used this phrase because of mood swings, conflict with parents and risk-taking in adolescence. Later research shows that culture and support reduce this turmoil.

Q3. Describe physical changes during adolescence.

• Hormonal control (pituitary, gonads).
• Growth spurt; sex differences in timing.
• Primary and secondary sex characteristics.
• Early and late maturation and their psychological effects.

Q4. Explain identity formation in adolescence.

• Erikson's identity vs role confusion.
• Marcia's four statuses with examples.
• Role of family, peers, culture and career choice.

Q5. Discuss the problems of adolescents and ways to deal with them.

• Academic stress, depression, substance use, internet addiction, eating disorders, delinquency.
• Causes: hormonal changes, peer pressure, family conflict.
• Remedies: communication, counselling, life-skills education, sports, helplines.

Exam tip

Name Marcia's four statuses in order of growth — diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, achievement — and give a career-choice example for each.

Quick summary

Adulthood is the longest part of life and is usually divided into early adulthood (about 20–40), middle adulthood (40–60/65) and late adulthood or old age (60/65 onwards). Adults build careers, relationships and families, face the mid-life period and later adjust to ageing, retirement and loss. Theories by Erikson, Levinson and others explain these tasks, and successful ageing depends on health, activity and social support.

Key points

• Early adulthood: peak physical health; choosing a career, achieving financial independence, marriage and parenthood. Erikson: intimacy vs isolation.
• Robert Havighurst listed developmental tasks for each stage (e.g. choosing a partner, starting a family, civic responsibility).
• Daniel Levinson (1978) – "seasons of a man's life"; the mid-life transition (about 40–45) as a time of re-evaluation.
• Middle adulthood: gradual physical decline (eyesight, metabolism), menopause in women (around 45–55), career peak, caring for children and ageing parents (the "sandwich generation"), empty nest when children leave. Erikson: generativity vs stagnation.
• Mid-life crisis – popular idea of turmoil around 40s; research shows only a minority experience a true crisis.
• Late adulthood (old age): slower reaction time, weaker senses and memory for new information, chronic diseases; but crystallised intelligence (knowledge, vocabulary) remains stable or grows while fluid intelligence (speed, new problem solving) declines (Cattell and Horn).
• Erikson: integrity vs despair – looking back on life with satisfaction or regret; the virtue is wisdom.
• Theories of ageing: disengagement theory (Cumming and Henry, 1961 – gradual mutual withdrawal of the elderly and society), activity theory (staying active keeps the elderly satisfied), continuity theory (people keep their earlier habits and roles), socioemotional selectivity theory (Laura Carstensen – the elderly focus on fewer, emotionally close relationships).
• Problems of the elderly: health, loneliness, loss of spouse, financial dependence, elder abuse, dementia (e.g. Alzheimer's disease).
• Successful ageing (Rowe and Kahn, 1997): low disease and disability, high mental and physical functioning, active engagement with life.
• Death and dying: Elisabeth Kübler-Ross (1969) – five stages of reaction to dying: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance (not always in fixed order).
• Indian context: joint family support declining; Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007; old-age pension schemes.

Important terms

• Gerontology – scientific study of ageing.
• Senescence – biological ageing.
• Empty nest syndrome – sadness of parents when grown children leave home.
• Generativity – concern for guiding the next generation.
• Dementia – serious decline in memory and thinking that affects daily life.

Important thinkers and theories

5 important questions

Q1. What is the sandwich generation?

Middle-aged adults who care at the same time for their growing children and their ageing parents, which can cause stress.

Q2. Name Kübler-Ross's stages of dying.

Denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.

Q3. Describe the developmental tasks of early and middle adulthood.

• Early: career, marriage, parenthood, independence; intimacy vs isolation.
• Middle: career peak, menopause, empty nest, sandwich generation; generativity vs stagnation.
• Levinson's mid-life transition.

Q4. Explain the theories of ageing.

• Disengagement, activity, continuity, socioemotional selectivity – meaning, example, criticism.
• Which suits Indian elderly best and why.

Q5. Discuss the problems of old age and suggest measures for successful ageing.

• Physical, cognitive, emotional, social and economic problems.
• Rowe and Kahn's model.
• Measures: exercise, hobbies, social contact, family respect, health care, government schemes and laws.

Exam tip

Learn Erikson's last three stages with their virtues (love, care, wisdom); they fit in almost every adulthood question.