व्यवसाय व्यवस्थापन Principles of Business Management

थोडक्यात सारांश

Management is the process of getting things done through and with people by planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling resources to achieve goals efficiently and effectively. This topic covers the meaning, nature and importance of management, whether it is a science, art or profession, the difference between management and administration, the levels of management and the skills a manager needs.

महत्त्वाचे मुद्दे

• Koontz and O'Donnell: management is "the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims".
• Nature: goal-oriented, universal, continuous process, group activity, intangible, dynamic, multidisciplinary, a system of authority.
• Management (व्यवस्थापन) is both a science (systematic body of knowledge, principles) and an art (personal skill, practice, creativity); it is an inexact (social) science.
• Management as a profession: has specialised knowledge and formal education (MBA), but lacks compulsory licensing and a single binding code of conduct, so it is only partly a profession.
• Functions (Koontz): planning, organising, staffing, directing, controlling; coordination is the essence of management.
• Levels: top (board, CEO – policies and goals), middle (department heads – implement plans), lower/operative (supervisors, foremen – direct workers).
• Skills (Robert Katz): technical (most at lower level), human (needed at all levels), conceptual (most at top level).
• Management vs administration: administration decides policies and goals (thinking function, top level); management executes them (doing function, middle and lower levels). In practice both overlap.
• Importance: achieves goals, optimum use of resources, reduces cost, creates a sound organisation, helps growth and development of society.
• Management ethics: honesty, fairness to employees, customers and society.

महत्त्वाच्या संज्ञा

• Efficiency – doing work with the least cost and resources ("doing things right").
• Effectiveness – achieving the goal on time ("doing the right things").
• Coordination – harmonising efforts of different people and departments.
• Professionalism – managing on the basis of expertise and ethics rather than family ownership.

महत्त्वाची माहिती

५ महत्त्वाचे प्रश्न

Q1. Define management.

Management is the process of planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling the efforts of people and the use of resources to achieve organisational goals efficiently and effectively (based on Koontz and O'Donnell).

Q2. What are conceptual skills?

The ability to see the organisation as a whole, understand how its parts relate, analyse complex situations and think about the future. It is most needed by top managers for strategy and policy decisions.

Q3. Explain the nature and characteristics of management.

Outline: definition → goal-oriented → universal → continuous → group activity → intangible but seen in results → dynamic → integrative → system of authority → multidisciplinary. One-line explanation each.

Q4. Is management a science, an art or a profession? Discuss.

Outline: features of science and how management fits (body of principles, cause-effect) but inexact → features of art (skill, practice, creativity) – fits fully → features of profession (knowledge, education, association, code of ethics, service motive) – partly fits; AIMA in India but no compulsory membership → conclusion: management is a science and an art, and is moving towards a profession.

Q5. Distinguish between management and administration. Explain the levels of management.

Outline: table of differences (nature, level, function, influence, usage) → three levels with functions of each (top: objectives, policies; middle: interpret policies, coordinate; lower: supervise work, maintain quality) → diagram of the management pyramid.

परीक्षेसाठी टीप

Write the Koontz definition and draw the management pyramid; both are quick marks in 2-mark and 10-mark answers.

थोडक्यात सारांश

Management thought has developed over a century through different schools. The classical school (Taylor's scientific management, Fayol's administrative principles, Weber's bureaucracy) focused on efficiency and structure. The neo-classical or human relations school (Elton Mayo, Mary Parker Follett) added the human side. Modern approaches (systems and contingency) see the organisation as a whole that must adapt to situations.

महत्त्वाचे मुद्दे

• F. W. Taylor (1856–1915), "father of scientific management", replaced rule of thumb with scientific study of work.
• Taylor's principles: science not rule of thumb; harmony not discord; cooperation not individualism; development of each person to greatest efficiency; maximum, not restricted, output.
• Taylor's techniques: time study, motion study, fatigue study, method study, standardisation, functional foremanship (8 foremen), differential piece-rate system.
• Henri Fayol (1841–1925), French mining engineer, "father of modern (general) management"; book "General and Industrial Management" (1916; English 1949).
• Fayol divided industrial activities into six groups: technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting and managerial.
• Fayol's 14 principles: division of work, authority and responsibility, discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, subordination of individual interest, remuneration, centralisation, scalar chain (with gang plank), order, equity, stability of tenure, initiative, esprit de corps.
• Max Weber: bureaucratic model – hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, selection on merit.
• Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne experiments (1924–1932, Western Electric, Chicago): workers' output depends more on social and psychological factors (attention, group norms) than on physical conditions.
• Mary Parker Follett: conflict resolution by integration, "power with" rather than "power over", coordination principles.
• Contingency approach: there is no one best way; the right method depends on the situation.

महत्त्वाच्या संज्ञा

• Functional foremanship – work supervised by eight specialist foremen (four in planning, four in production).
• Differential piece rate – higher rate for workers who reach the standard, lower rate for those below it.
• Scalar chain – line of authority from top to bottom.
• Gang plank – direct contact between equals at the same level to save time, with superiors informed.
• Esprit de corps – team spirit; "union is strength".
• Hawthorne effect – people work better when they feel observed and valued.

महत्त्वाची माहिती

५ महत्त्वाचे प्रश्न

Q1. What is the scalar chain? What is a gang plank?

Scalar chain is the formal chain of authority from the highest to the lowest rank, through which communication should pass. A gang plank allows two employees at the same level in different chains to communicate directly in urgent cases, keeping their superiors informed.

Q2. What were the main findings of the Hawthorne experiments?

Productivity was influenced by social factors: attention from management, group belonging, informal group norms and good communication mattered more than lighting or rest periods. This started the human relations movement.

Q3. Explain Taylor's principles and techniques of scientific management.

Outline: introduction → five principles → techniques (time, motion, fatigue and method study, standardisation, functional foremanship with chart, differential piece-rate with example) → criticism by workers and employers → relevance today.

Q4. Explain any ten of Fayol's principles of management.

Outline: introduction → each principle with meaning and an example (e.g. unity of command – one boss for one worker) → importance of the principles: universal guidelines, basis for training, efficient administration.

Q5. Compare the contributions of Taylor and Fayol.

Outline: background → table of differences (focus, level, approach, applicability, personality) → complementary nature: Taylor improved productivity at shop level, Fayol gave a framework for the whole organisation.

परीक्षेसाठी टीप

Learn Fayol's 14 principles with a memory chain (D-A-D-U-U-S-R-C-S-O-E-S-I-E). Examiners frequently ask "any 8" or "any 10".

थोडक्यात सारांश

Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who will do it. It is the first and most basic function of management. Decision-making is choosing the best course of action from the available alternatives, and it lies at the heart of planning. This topic covers the nature, types, steps, importance and limits of planning, and the types and steps of decision-making.

महत्त्वाचे मुद्दे

• Koontz and O'Donnell: "Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who is to do it. It bridges the gap from where we are to where we want to go."
• Nature of planning (नियोजन): primary function, goal-oriented, pervasive (at all levels), continuous, future-oriented, involves choice, mental (intellectual) exercise, aims at efficiency.
• Types of plans: objectives, strategies, policies, procedures, methods, rules, programmes, budgets. Also strategic (long-term, top level), tactical (medium-term) and operational (short-term) plans.
• Steps in planning: set objectives → develop premises (forecasts) → identify alternatives → evaluate alternatives → select the best → implement → follow up.
• Importance: gives direction, reduces uncertainty, reduces wasteful overlapping, promotes innovation, helps decision-making, sets standards for control.
• Limitations: rigidity, does not work in a fast-changing environment, costly and time-consuming, reduces creativity, no guarantee of success.
• Decision-making (निर्णय प्रक्रिया): choice among alternatives to solve a problem or use an opportunity.
• Types of decisions: programmed (routine) and non-programmed (new, unusual); strategic and tactical; individual and group (committee); major and minor.
• Steps in decision-making: identify the problem → analyse it and collect facts → develop alternatives → evaluate them → select the best → implement → follow up and feedback.
• Committee decision-making pools knowledge and gives acceptance but is slow, costly and may lead to compromise.

महत्त्वाच्या संज्ञा

• Premises – assumptions about the future on which plans are based.
• Policy – general guide to thinking for decisions (e.g. "we sell only for cash").
• Procedure – step-by-step order of doing a routine task.
• Rule – a specific instruction on what must or must not be done; no discretion.
• Budget – a plan expressed in numbers for a future period.
• Strategy – comprehensive plan to meet objectives, considering competitors and environment.
• MBO (Management by Objectives) – Peter Drucker's idea: goals set jointly by superior and subordinate.

महत्त्वाची माहिती

५ महत्त्वाचे प्रश्न

Q1. What are planning premises?

Planning premises are the assumptions or forecasts about future conditions (demand, prices, government policy, technology) on which plans are built. They may be internal or external, controllable or uncontrollable.

Q2. Distinguish between programmed and non-programmed decisions.

Programmed decisions are routine and repetitive and are taken by following set rules (granting casual leave). Non-programmed decisions deal with new, complex problems and need judgement and creativity (launching a new product); they are taken by senior managers.

Q3. Explain the nature and importance of planning.

Outline: definition → features (primary, goal-oriented, pervasive, continuous, futuristic, decision-making, mental exercise) → importance (direction, reduces uncertainty, coordination, innovation, control, efficient use of resources).

Q4. Explain the steps in the planning process.

Outline: draw a flow chart → explain each step with the example of a firm planning to open a new branch in Nagpur → stress follow-up and revision.

Q5. What is decision-making? Explain its steps and importance.

Outline: definition → features (choice, goal-oriented, continuous, involves commitment) → steps (problem → analysis → alternatives → evaluation → choice → implementation → follow-up) → importance (heart of management, solves problems, uses opportunities, motivates people) → methods (individual, group, committee) with merits and limits.

परीक्षेसाठी टीप

For "types of plans", give a one-line example for each; examiners look for examples, not just definitions.

थोडक्यात सारांश

Organising is the function of arranging people, work and resources into a structure so that plans can be carried out. It means identifying and grouping activities, assigning duties, and creating authority-responsibility relationships. This topic covers the meaning, process and principles of organisation, features of a good structure, delegation and decentralisation, and the main types of organisation structure.

महत्त्वाचे मुद्दे

• Organisation (संघटन) as a process: deciding who does what, who reports to whom, and how departments relate.
• Steps in organising: identify activities → group them into departments (departmentalisation) → assign duties → delegate authority → establish reporting relationships.
• Principles: unity of objective, specialisation, span of control, scalar chain, unity of command, balance of authority and responsibility, flexibility, efficiency, continuity.
• Delegation: transfer of authority from superior to subordinate. Elements: responsibility (assigned), authority (granted), accountability (cannot be delegated).
• Decentralisation: systematic delegation of authority to lower levels throughout the organisation.
• Span of control: number of subordinates a manager can supervise effectively; narrow span → tall structure, wide span → flat structure.
• Types of structure: line, line and staff, functional, committee, divisional, matrix; plus formal and informal organisation.
• Line organisation: authority flows straight from top to bottom; simple, quick decisions, but overloads executives.
• Line and staff: line managers command, staff specialists (legal, HR, finance experts) advise; suits large firms.
• Functional organisation: grouping by functions (production, marketing, finance) under specialists.
• Features of a good structure: clear lines of authority, simplicity, flexibility, proper span, balance, economy, room for growth.

महत्त्वाच्या संज्ञा

• Authority – the right to give orders and get them obeyed.
• Responsibility – the duty to complete an assigned task.
• Accountability – being answerable for results to the superior.
• Departmentalisation – grouping activities into units by function, product, territory or customer.
• Informal organisation – network of personal and social relations among employees.

महत्त्वाची माहिती

५ महत्त्वाचे प्रश्न

Q1. What is span of control?

Span of control is the number of subordinates who report directly to one manager and whom he can supervise effectively. It depends on the nature of work, ability of the manager and subordinates, and use of communication tools.

Q2. State the elements of delegation.

Responsibility (the task assigned), authority (the power given to do it) and accountability (answerability for results). Authority can be delegated; accountability cannot.

Q3. Explain the principles of organisation.

Outline: definition → unity of objective → specialisation → span of control → scalar chain → unity of command → authority equal to responsibility → flexibility → efficiency → simplicity → continuity; short example for each.

Q4. Explain line and staff organisation with merits and demerits.

Outline: meaning → chart showing line managers and staff advisors → merits (expert advice, relief to line managers, better decisions, discipline maintained) → demerits (line-staff conflict, staff has no authority, costly, confusion) → suitability.

Q5. Distinguish between formal and informal organisation.

Outline: meaning of each → differences (origin: deliberate vs spontaneous; purpose: official goals vs social needs; structure: chart vs network; authority: position vs personal; communication: official channel vs grapevine) → informal organisation should be used positively by managers.

परीक्षेसाठी टीप

Draw a small organisation chart whenever you explain a structure; a labelled chart is often worth 2–3 marks on its own.

थोडक्यात सारांश

Staffing is the management function of filling and keeping filled the positions in the organisation structure with the right people. It covers manpower planning, recruitment, selection, placement, induction, training and development, performance appraisal, promotion, transfer and compensation. Since people run every other resource, staffing is called the "human" function of management.

महत्त्वाचे मुद्दे

• Staffing (कर्मचारी व्यवस्थापन) is a continuous function, performed by all managers, and is part of Human Resource Management (HRM).
• Steps: manpower planning → recruitment → selection → placement and orientation (induction) → training and development → performance appraisal → promotion, transfer and career planning → compensation.
• Manpower (human resource) planning: estimating how many and what kind of people are needed, and when.
• Recruitment: searching for prospective employees and encouraging them to apply (a positive process).
• Internal sources: promotion, transfer, re-employment of ex-employees, employee referrals. External sources: advertisement, employment exchanges, campus placement, placement agencies, job portals, walk-ins, labour contractors.
• Selection: choosing the best candidates from the applicants (a negative process because many are rejected).
• Selection steps: screening of applications → preliminary interview → selection tests (aptitude, intelligence, personality, trade) → employment interview → reference and background check → selection decision → medical test → job offer → contract of employment.
• Training: improving skills for the present job; development: overall growth for future roles.
• Training methods: on-the-job (coaching, job rotation, apprenticeship, internship) and off-the-job (lectures, case study, role play, vestibule training, simulation, e-learning).
• Performance appraisal: systematic evaluation of an employee's work, used for promotion, pay, training needs and feedback.

महत्त्वाच्या संज्ञा

• Job analysis – study of the duties of a job (job description) and qualities needed (job specification).
• Induction/orientation – introducing a new employee to the organisation, colleagues and rules.
• Vestibule training – training in a separate room equipped like the actual workplace.
• Placement – putting the selected person on the job for which he is selected.
• 360-degree appraisal – feedback from superiors, peers, subordinates and customers.

महत्त्वाची माहिती

५ महत्त्वाचे प्रश्न

Q1. What is recruitment?

Recruitment is the process of searching for prospective employees and stimulating them to apply for jobs in the organisation. It creates a pool of suitable applicants from which selection is made.

Q2. What is induction?

Induction (orientation) is the process of welcoming a newly selected employee and introducing him to the organisation, its rules, policies, people and his workplace so that he settles quickly.

Q3. Explain the steps of the staffing process.

Outline: manpower planning → recruitment → selection → placement and induction → training and development → performance appraisal → promotion and career planning → compensation; one example line for each.

Q4. Explain the internal and external sources of recruitment with merits and demerits.

Outline: internal sources with merits (motivation, cheap, known candidates) and demerits (limited choice, no fresh talent) → external sources with merits (wide choice, fresh ideas) and demerits (costly, time-consuming, may demotivate existing staff) → conclusion: use both.

Q5. Explain the selection procedure.

Outline: each step with purpose (screening, preliminary interview, tests, interview, references, decision, medical, offer, contract) → importance of scientific selection (right person for right job, less turnover).

परीक्षेसाठी टीप

Remember: recruitment is positive and selection is negative. This one-line contrast appears in almost every staffing paper.

थोडक्यात सारांश

Directing is the function of guiding, instructing, motivating and supervising people so that they work towards the organisation's goals. It turns plans into action. Its elements are supervision, communication, motivation and leadership. This topic covers directing in brief and then leadership: its meaning, qualities, styles and important theories.

महत्त्वाचे मुद्दे

• Directing (मार्गदर्शन / निर्देशन) is the "action" function: it starts the work and continues throughout.
• Features: initiates action, continuous, flows from top to bottom, performed at every level, deals with people.
• Elements: supervision, communication, motivation, leadership.
• Principles of directing: harmony of objectives, unity of command, direct supervision, effective communication, appropriate leadership and motivation, follow-up.
• Leadership (नेतृत्व): the ability to influence the behaviour of others to work willingly towards goals.
• Qualities of a good leader: vision, integrity, intelligence, communication skill, decision-making ability, confidence, empathy, initiative, sense of responsibility.
• Leadership styles: autocratic (leader decides alone; quick but low morale), democratic/participative (team consulted; good morale, slower), laissez-faire/free-rein (team decides; suits experts), plus paternalistic and bureaucratic.
• Theories: trait theory (leaders have certain inborn traits), behavioural theories (Ohio State and Michigan studies), Managerial Grid (Blake and Mouton: concern for people × concern for production; 9,9 team management is ideal), situational/contingency theories (Fiedler; Hersey–Blanchard: style depends on followers' readiness).
• Difference: a manager may lead by formal authority; a leader influences even without a formal position.

महत्त्वाच्या संज्ञा

• Supervision – overseeing subordinates' work at the operative level.
• Formal leader – appointed by the organisation; informal leader – emerges from the group.
• Managerial Grid – 9 × 9 chart of leadership styles (1,1 impoverished; 9,1 task; 1,9 country club; 5,5 middle road; 9,9 team).
• Transformational leader – inspires followers to go beyond self-interest for a shared vision.

महत्त्वाची माहिती

५ महत्त्वाचे प्रश्न

Q1. Define leadership.

Leadership is the process of influencing the behaviour of people so that they strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of group goals (based on Koontz and O'Donnell).

Q2. What is the Managerial Grid?

A model by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton that plots leadership styles on two axes, concern for production and concern for people, each from 1 to 9. The 9,9 "team management" style is considered the best.

Q3. Explain the nature and elements of directing.

Outline: meaning → features → elements (supervision, communication, motivation, leadership) with a short explanation each → importance (initiates action, integrates efforts, brings change, ensures stability).

Q4. Explain the different styles of leadership with merits and demerits.

Outline: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire (and paternalistic) → working, merits, demerits and suitability of each → conclusion: no single style is best; it depends on the situation.

Q5. Explain the qualities of a good leader.

Outline: physical and mental fitness, vision, integrity, intelligence, communication, decision-making, initiative, empathy, confidence, flexibility → example of a well-known Indian business leader (e.g. Ratan Tata's integrity) → conclusion.

परीक्षेसाठी टीप

Always end a leadership answer with "the best style depends on the situation" — it shows you know the contingency view.

थोडक्यात सारांश

Motivation is the inner drive that makes a person act to achieve a goal. In management it means creating conditions that make employees willing to work hard and well. This topic covers the meaning, process and types of motivation, financial and non-financial incentives, and the main theories: Maslow, Herzberg, McGregor (X and Y), McClelland and Vroom.

महत्त्वाचे मुद्दे

• Motivation (अभिप्रेरणा) comes from the Latin "movere" = to move.
• Process: unsatisfied need → tension → drive → search behaviour → satisfied need → reduction of tension.
• Motivation is internal, continuous, goal-directed, and can be positive (rewards) or negative (fear of punishment).
• Financial incentives: pay and allowances, bonus, profit-sharing, commission, ESOPs (employee stock options), retirement benefits, perquisites.
• Non-financial incentives: status, recognition, job security, job enrichment, employee participation, career opportunities, good working environment, empowerment.
• Maslow's need hierarchy (1943): physiological → safety → social (belonging) → esteem → self-actualisation. A satisfied need no longer motivates; higher needs appear after lower ones are met.
• Herzberg's two-factor theory: hygiene (maintenance) factors – salary, company policy, working conditions, supervision, job security – prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate; motivators – achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, growth – create satisfaction.
• McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y: X assumes people dislike work, avoid responsibility and need control; Y assumes people like work, seek responsibility and are creative and self-directed.
• McClelland: needs for achievement, affiliation and power.
• Vroom's expectancy theory: Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence.

महत्त्वाच्या संज्ञा

• Incentive – something that encourages a person to work better.
• Self-actualisation – becoming everything one is capable of becoming.
• Hygiene factors – job-context factors whose absence causes dissatisfaction.
• Job enrichment – adding challenge, responsibility and variety to a job.
• Morale – team spirit and attitude of employees towards work.

महत्त्वाची माहिती

५ महत्त्वाचे प्रश्न

Q1. What are hygiene factors?

In Herzberg's theory, hygiene factors are job-context factors such as salary, company policy, supervision, working conditions and job security. Their absence causes dissatisfaction, but their presence alone does not motivate.

Q2. Distinguish between Theory X and Theory Y.

Theory X assumes employees are lazy, avoid responsibility and must be controlled and threatened. Theory Y assumes employees enjoy work, are self-directed, seek responsibility and are creative. X suits autocratic leadership; Y suits participative leadership.

Q3. Explain Maslow's need hierarchy theory with a diagram.

Outline: introduction → pyramid diagram with five levels → explanation and workplace example of each → assumptions (needs are arranged in order; satisfied need does not motivate) → criticism (order not fixed for everyone, needs overlap, culture differences) → usefulness to managers.

Q4. Explain Herzberg's two-factor theory and compare it with Maslow's theory.

Outline: background (study of engineers and accountants) → hygiene factors list → motivators list → implications (job enrichment) → comparison table → criticism (small sample, ignores individual differences).

Q5. Explain the financial and non-financial incentives used to motivate employees.

Outline: meaning → financial incentives with examples → non-financial incentives with examples → importance of combining both → example of an Indian company's employee recognition scheme.

परीक्षेसाठी टीप

Draw Maslow's pyramid and a two-column Herzberg table; diagrams make motivation answers quick to write and easy to mark.

थोडक्यात सारांश

Controlling is the management function of checking whether actual performance matches the planned standards and taking corrective action where it does not. Coordination is the orderly arrangement of group efforts so that all departments work in unity towards common goals. Planning and controlling are like the two blades of a pair of scissors, and coordination is called the essence of management.

महत्त्वाचे मुद्दे

• Controlling (नियंत्रण) ensures that plans are achieved; it is forward-looking as well as backward-looking.
• Features: goal-oriented, continuous, pervasive (all levels), action-oriented, both a first and a last function.
• Steps in controlling: set standards → measure actual performance → compare with standards → analyse deviations → take corrective action.
• Management by exception: managers deal only with significant deviations; small ones are handled at lower levels.
• Critical point control: focus on key result areas (KRAs) that affect the whole organisation.
• Relationship: planning sets standards; controlling checks them; without planning there is nothing to control, and without control planning is meaningless.
• Techniques of control: traditional (personal observation, budgetary control, statistical reports, break-even analysis) and modern (ratio analysis, return on investment, responsibility accounting, management audit, PERT and CPM, MIS).
• Coordination (समन्वय): integrating the activities of different departments and people towards one goal.
• Coordination is needed because of division of work, specialisation, many departments, differing individual goals and growth in size.
• Features of coordination: integrates group efforts, ensures unity of action, continuous, all-pervasive, responsibility of all managers, deliberate.
• Coordination is achieved through clear objectives, sound structure, effective communication, good leadership, committees and liaison officers.

महत्त्वाच्या संज्ञा

• Standard – the planned target against which performance is measured.
• Deviation – difference between actual and standard performance.
• Budgetary control – controlling through budgets and comparing actual results with them.
• Feedforward control – preventing problems before they occur.
• Cooperation – voluntary willingness of people to help each other (coordination is deliberate effort by managers).

महत्त्वाची माहिती

Example of the control process (sales):

५ महत्त्वाचे प्रश्न

Q1. What is management by exception?

A principle of control by which managers attend only to significant deviations from standards (exceptions), while routine and minor deviations are handled by subordinates. It saves the manager's time and focuses attention on important problems.

Q2. Why is coordination called the essence of management?

Because every function of management – planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling – needs coordination to bring unity of action. It is not a separate function but runs through all functions and all levels.

Q3. Explain the steps in the process of controlling.

Outline: setting standards (measurable, realistic) → measurement of performance → comparison → analysis of deviations (critical point control, management by exception) → corrective action → use the sales example.

Q4. "Planning and controlling are inseparable twins of management." Explain.

Outline: planning gives standards to control → controlling tells whether plans are working → both are forward-looking and backward-looking → feedback from control improves future plans → scissors analogy → conclusion.

Q5. Explain the need and techniques of coordination.

Outline: meaning → need (division of work, interdependence of departments, large size, conflicting goals, specialisation) → techniques (sound planning, clear structure, effective communication, leadership, committees, meetings, liaison, common goals, cooperation) → features.

परीक्षेसाठी टीप

Use one small numerical example (standard vs actual) when explaining the control process; it shows understanding better than definitions alone.