राज्यशास्त्र Political Science

Quick summary

Equality (समता) does not mean that all people are the same. It means that all people should have equal rights and equal opportunities, and that no one should get special privileges because of birth, caste, religion, gender or wealth. Equality has several forms: natural, social, civil, political and economic. The relation between liberty and equality is a classic debate.

Key points

• Laski: equality means, first of all, the absence of special privilege; secondly, that adequate opportunities are laid open to all.
• Equality has a negative side (no special privileges) and a positive side (adequate opportunities for all).
• Natural equality: all humans are born equal (a belief of social contract thinkers like Rousseau).
• Social equality: no discrimination on caste, religion, race, gender. Article 17 of the Indian Constitution abolishes untouchability.
• Civil (legal) equality: equality before law and equal protection of laws (Article 14).
• Political equality: universal adult franchise; every citizen can vote and contest elections ("one person, one vote").
• Economic equality: reducing large gaps of wealth; meeting basic needs of all. Marxists stress it most.
• Equality of opportunity: everyone gets the same chance, e.g. Article 16 on public employment.
• Equality of outcome: making results more equal, often through special measures.
• Protective discrimination / affirmative action: reservations for SCs, STs and OBCs in India help achieve real equality.
• Liberty vs equality:
• Opposed view: Lord Acton and Alexis de Tocqueville felt passion for equality may destroy liberty.
• Lord Acton wrote that "the passion for equality made vain the hope of freedom" (about the French Revolution).
• Complementary view: Laski, Tawney, Rousseau – liberty is meaningless without equality; modern thinkers see them as partners.
• R. H. Tawney wrote Equality (1931).

Important terms

• Equality before law – everyone is subject to the same law.
• Universal adult franchise – right to vote for all adults without discrimination.
• Affirmative action – special steps for disadvantaged groups.
• Privilege – special right enjoyed by a few.
• Egalitarianism – belief in equality of all people.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Define equality.

According to Laski, equality means the absence of special privileges and the availability of adequate opportunities to all. It does not mean identical treatment of all.

Q2. What is political equality?

Political equality means every adult citizen has equal political rights – to vote, contest elections and hold office – without discrimination.

Q3. Explain the kinds of equality.

• Natural equality.
• Social equality – no caste, race or gender discrimination.
• Civil/legal equality – equality before law.
• Political equality – universal adult franchise.
• Economic equality – reduce wealth gaps.
• Equality of opportunity.

Q4. Discuss the relationship between liberty and equality.

• Opposed view: Acton, Tocqueville; equality may limit freedom.
• Complementary view: Laski, Tawney, Rousseau.
• Political liberty is empty without economic equality.
• Equality without liberty may lead to dictatorship.
• Democracy needs both.

Q5. How does the Indian Constitution ensure equality?

• Article 14: equality before law.
• Article 15: no discrimination.
• Article 16: equal opportunity in public jobs.
• Article 17: untouchability abolished.
• Article 18: titles abolished.
• Reservations and Directive Principles for economic equality.

Exam tip

Linking the theory of equality with Articles 14–18 of the Indian Constitution is the quickest way to impress the examiner.

Quick summary

Rights (अधिकार) are claims of individuals that are recognised by society and protected by the state, so that each person can develop fully. Rights and duties go together. Major theories of rights are the natural, legal, historical, social welfare and Laski's theories. Rights may be moral, legal, civil, political and economic, and today human rights are also recognised worldwide.

Key points

• Laski: rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek, in general, to be himself at his best.
• Bosanquet: a right is a claim recognised by society and enforced by the state.
• T. H. Green: rights are powers necessary for the fulfilment of man's vocation as a moral being.
• Features: rights exist only in society; they are claims of individuals; recognised by society; enforced by the state; universal; linked with duties; for the common good; not absolute.
• Kinds: moral rights (backed by conscience/society) and legal rights (backed by law).
• Legal rights are of three types: civil (life, liberty, property, speech, religion, family), political (vote, contest elections, hold office, petition, criticise government) and economic (work, fair wages, rest, social security).
• Theory of natural rights: rights are given by nature and exist before the state (Locke: life, liberty and property). Criticism: vague; rights need society.
• Legal theory: rights are created and protected by the state's law (Bentham, Austin, Hobbes).
• Historical theory: rights grow out of long-standing customs (Burke).
• Social welfare theory: rights are conditions for social good (Bentham's utilitarianism, Laski, Roscoe Pound).
• Idealist theory: rights help moral development (Green).
• Rights and duties are two sides of the same coin; my right is someone else's duty. Indian Constitution has Fundamental Duties (Article 51A).
• Human rights: the UN adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) on 10 December 1948. 10 December is Human Rights Day.
• In India, the National Human Rights Commission was set up under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.

Important terms

• Legal right – right enforced by the courts.
• Moral right – right based on ethics, not enforced by law.
• Natural rights – rights believed to be inborn.
• Human rights – basic rights every person has as a human being.
• Duty – obligation that comes with a right.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Define rights.

According to Laski, rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek to be his best self. Bosanquet calls a right a claim recognised by society and enforced by the state.

Q2. What are political rights?

Political rights allow citizens to take part in government: right to vote, to contest elections, to hold public office, to petition and to criticise the government.

Q3. Explain the features of rights.

• Exist only in society.
• Claims of individuals.
• Recognised by society; protected by the state.
• Equal for all (universal).
• Rights carry duties.
• For common good; reasonable limits.

Q4. Critically examine the theory of natural rights.

• Rights given by nature, before the state.
• Locke: life, liberty, property.
• Influenced American and French revolutions.
• Criticism: "nature" vague; rights need society and law.
• Bentham called natural rights "nonsense upon stilts".
• Still valued as base of human rights.

Q5. Explain the relationship between rights and duties.

• Right of one = duty of others.
• Rights imply duty to use them properly.
• Duty towards state – obey laws, pay taxes.
• State's duty to protect rights.
• Indian Constitution: Fundamental Rights (Part III) and Duties (Article 51A).

Exam tip

Mention UDHR's date (10 December 1948) and Bentham's "nonsense upon stilts" remark – both are short, sure facts that lift answers.

Quick summary

Justice (न्याय) means giving each person what is due to him. It is the basic value that balances liberty, equality and rights. Justice has legal, social, economic and political dimensions. Classic thinkers like Plato and Aristotle discussed justice, and in modern times John Rawls gave a famous theory of "justice as fairness". The Indian Constitution promises social, economic and political justice.

Key points

• The word comes from the Latin jus, meaning bond or tie.
• Plato (Republic): justice means each class doing its own work without interfering with others. It is harmony in the individual and the state.
• Aristotle: distinguished distributive justice (sharing goods and offices according to merit) and corrective justice (correcting wrongs in transactions).
• Legal justice: just laws, equality before law, fair and speedy trial, rule of law, independent judiciary.
• Social justice: removal of discrimination based on caste, religion, race or gender; special help for weaker sections. Dr. Ambedkar strongly advocated it.
• Economic justice: fair distribution of wealth, work for all, fair wages, basic needs met.
• Political justice: equal political rights for all – vote, office, free expression.
• John Rawls (A Theory of Justice, 1971): justice as fairness.
• Rawls's "original position" and "veil of ignorance": people choose principles without knowing their own position in society, so they choose fair rules.
• Rawls's two principles:

1. Each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic liberties compatible with similar liberty for others.
2. Social and economic inequalities are acceptable only if (a) they benefit the least advantaged (difference principle) and (b) offices are open to all under fair equality of opportunity.

• Robert Nozick (Anarchy, State, and Utopia, 1974) criticised Rawls and supported a minimal state (entitlement theory).
• Amartya Sen (The Idea of Justice, 2009) focused on real-life injustices and capabilities.
• Indian Preamble: "JUSTICE, social, economic and political".

Important terms

• Distributive justice – fair distribution of goods and burdens.
• Veil of ignorance – Rawls's device to imagine fair choice.
• Difference principle – inequalities allowed only if they help the worst-off.
• Social justice – equality of status and removal of discrimination.
• Rule of law – supremacy of law over arbitrary power.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is social justice?

Social justice means ending discrimination based on caste, religion, race or gender and giving equal social status to all. It includes special protection for weaker sections like SCs, STs and women.

Q2. What is the "veil of ignorance"?

It is John Rawls's thought experiment. People choose principles of justice without knowing their own class, talents or position, so they choose rules that are fair to everyone.

Q3. Explain the different dimensions of justice.

• Legal justice: fair laws and courts.
• Social justice: no discrimination.
• Economic justice: fair distribution, livelihood.
• Political justice: equal political rights.
• All are linked; Indian Preamble mentions three.

Q4. Explain John Rawls's theory of justice.

• Justice as fairness.
• Original position and veil of ignorance.
• First principle: equal basic liberties.
• Second: fair equality of opportunity + difference principle.
• Priority of liberty.
• Criticism: Nozick (libertarian), communitarians.

Q5. Discuss Plato's concept of justice.

• Three classes: rulers, warriors (auxiliaries), producers.
• Three parts of soul: reason, spirit, appetite.
• Justice = each doing his own function.
• Harmony and non-interference.
• Criticism: ignores individual rights; supports class division.

Exam tip

Learn Rawls's two principles exactly; they are asked again and again in university exams.

Quick summary

Citizenship is full and equal membership of a political community (the state), with rights and duties. A citizen enjoys civil and political rights such as voting and holding office, and owes loyalty and duties to the state. T. H. Marshall explained citizenship as civil, political and social rights. In India, citizenship is covered by Articles 5–11 of the Constitution and the Citizenship Act, 1955.

Key points

• The word comes from the Latin civis (resident of a city). In ancient Athens only free adult males were citizens; women, slaves and foreigners were excluded.
• Aristotle: a citizen is one who shares in the administration of justice and in holding office.
• Laski: citizenship is the contribution of one's instructed judgment to the public good.
• Citizen vs alien: a citizen has full civil and political rights; an alien (foreigner) lives in the state but has only limited civil rights and no right to vote.
• Natural (by birth): jus soli (by place of birth, e.g. USA) and jus sanguinis (by blood or parents' citizenship, e.g. most European states).
• Naturalisation: by long residence, marriage, government service, purchase of property, or grant.
• Acquisition of citizenship:
• Loss of citizenship: renunciation, acquiring another citizenship, long absence, marriage to a foreigner (in some states), service in a foreign army, treason or crime, deprivation by the state.
• T. H. Marshall (Citizenship and Social Class, 1950): citizenship grew in three stages in Britain – civil rights (18th century), political rights (19th century) and social rights (20th century, welfare state).
• Liberal view: citizenship as a legal status with individual rights. Republican view: active participation in public life. Communitarian view: belonging to a community. Feminist critique: formal equality hides exclusion of women.
• Good citizenship – qualities: intelligence, self-control, conscience, education, tolerance, public spirit, honesty, participation.
• Hindrances (Lord Bryce): indolence (laziness), personal self-interest, party spirit; also illiteracy, poverty, casteism and communalism.
• India: single citizenship for the whole country (unlike the USA's dual citizenship). Articles 5–11; Citizenship Act 1955 gives acquisition by birth, descent, registration, naturalisation and incorporation of territory. Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) is not full citizenship.

Important terms

• Citizen – full member of the state with rights and duties.
• Alien – a foreigner living in a state.
• Jus soli / jus sanguinis – citizenship by place of birth / by descent.
• Naturalisation – grant of citizenship to a foreigner.
• Social rights – rights to education, health and welfare.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is the difference between a citizen and an alien?

A citizen is a full member of the state with civil and political rights, including the right to vote. An alien is a foreigner who lives in the state but has only limited rights and owes temporary loyalty.

Q2. What are jus soli and jus sanguinis?

Jus soli gives citizenship by place of birth; jus sanguinis gives citizenship by the citizenship of the parents (blood relation).

Q3. Explain the methods of acquiring and losing citizenship.

• Natural: jus soli, jus sanguinis.
• Naturalisation: residence, marriage, service, property, grant.
• Loss: renunciation, foreign citizenship, absence, treason, deprivation.
• Indian example: Citizenship Act, 1955.

Q4. Explain T. H. Marshall's theory of citizenship.

• Three elements: civil, political, social rights.
• Historical growth in Britain.
• Link with the welfare state and class inequality.
• Criticism: based only on British experience; ignores gender and minorities.

Q5. What are the qualities of a good citizen and the hindrances to good citizenship?

• Qualities: education, conscience, self-control, public spirit, participation.
• Bryce's hindrances: indolence, self-interest, party spirit.
• Other hindrances and remedies: education, awareness, honest leadership.

Exam tip

In questions on India, mention single citizenship and Articles 5–11; it shows you can link theory with the Indian Constitution.

Quick summary

A political ideology is a set of connected ideas about how society should be organised and what the state should do. Liberalism puts the individual, liberty and rights first, with limited government and a market economy. Socialism puts equality and the community first, and wants social control of the main means of production so that wealth is shared fairly. Both have many branches, and modern India mixes elements of both.

Key points

Liberalism

• From the Latin liber (free). It grew with the Renaissance, Reformation, the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the American (1776) and French (1789) revolutions.
• Classical liberalism (John Locke, Adam Smith, Bentham): natural rights, consent, limited state, free trade, laissez-faire.
• Modern / positive liberalism (J. S. Mill in part, T. H. Green, Hobhouse, Laski, Keynes): the state must remove obstacles like poverty and ignorance; supports the welfare state.
• Neo-liberalism / libertarianism (Hayek, Nozick, Milton Friedman): minimal state, privatisation, free market.
• Core values: individualism, liberty, equality before law, rights, rule of law, constitutionalism, toleration, democracy.
• Criticism: favours the rich, ignores economic equality, extreme individualism.

Socialism

• Reaction to the evils of the Industrial Revolution: exploitation, poverty, inequality.
• Utopian socialism (Robert Owen, Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier): ideal communities through goodwill.
• Scientific socialism / Marxism (Marx and Engels): class struggle, revolution, abolition of private property.
• Democratic (evolutionary) socialism: gradual change through elections and reforms. Fabian Society (1884) – Sidney and Beatrice Webb, G. B. Shaw. Also Eduard Bernstein (revisionism).
• Other forms: guild socialism, syndicalism, Gandhian socialism (trusteeship), and the democratic socialism of Lohia and Nehru in India.
• Core values: equality, co-operation, social ownership, planning, workers' welfare, end of exploitation.
• Criticism: reduces individual freedom, bureaucracy, inefficiency, weak incentives.

India: the word "socialist" was added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment (1976); the Directive Principles reflect socialist goals while Fundamental Rights reflect liberal values.

Important terms

• Ideology – a system of political beliefs and goals.
• Individualism – the individual is more important than the group.
• Welfare state – state providing education, health and social security.
• Fabianism – gradual, peaceful socialism (named after the Roman general Fabius).
• Means of production – land, factories, machines and capital.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is an ideology?

An ideology is a set of ideas, beliefs and values that explains society and suggests how it should be organised and changed.

Q2. What is Fabian socialism?

It is a British form of democratic socialism (Fabian Society, 1884) which wants to bring socialism gradually and peacefully through education, elections and reforms.

Q3. Explain the main features of liberalism.

• Meaning and origin.
• Individualism, liberty, rights, consent, limited state, rule of law, market.
• Classical, modern and neo-liberal stages.
• Criticism.

Q4. Explain the meaning and types of socialism.

• Meaning and background.
• Utopian, Marxist, democratic/Fabian, guild, Gandhian.
• Core features and criticism.

Q5. Compare liberalism and socialism.

• Basis: individual vs community.
• Property: private vs social ownership.
• State role: limited vs active planner.
• Value: liberty vs equality.
• Method of change; Indian mixed economy as a meeting point.

Exam tip

When comparing, end with the Indian example: Fundamental Rights (liberal) and Directive Principles (socialist).

Quick summary

Feminism is a theory and movement that says women and men should have equal rights and dignity, and that society is shaped by patriarchy – a system of male dominance. Feminists study how inequality between the sexes is created in the family, economy and politics, and work to end it. RTMNU teaches it with justice (feminist perspective); it is now a standard topic in political theory.

Key points

• Feminism questions the idea that politics is only the "public sphere" and the family is "private". Its famous slogan: "The personal is political" (Carol Hanisch, 1969).
• Sex and gender: sex is biological; gender is the social role given to men and women. Simone de Beauvoir: "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman" (The Second Sex, 1949).
• Patriarchy: a social system in which men hold power in the family and society, and women are kept dependent.
• First wave (late 19th – early 20th century): legal rights, property rights and the right to vote (suffragette movement). Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) was an early text; J. S. Mill wrote The Subjection of Women (1869).
• Second wave (1960s–1980s): equal pay, reproductive rights, sexuality, family; Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963), Kate Millett's Sexual Politics (1970).
• Third wave (1990s onward): diversity among women by race, class, caste and culture; intersectionality (Kimberlé Crenshaw).
• Waves of feminism:
• Liberal feminism: equal rights and opportunities through law and education (Wollstonecraft, Mill, Friedan).
• Radical feminism: patriarchy is the root of oppression; needs a basic change in family and sexuality (Millett, Shulamith Firestone).
• Marxist / socialist feminism: women's oppression is linked with capitalism and unpaid domestic labour (Engels, Juliet Mitchell).
• Black / Dalit feminism: caste, race and class shape women's experience.
• Types of feminism:
• Indian contributions: Savitribai Phule and Jyotirao Phule (girls' school in Pune, 1848), Pandita Ramabai, Tarabai Shinde (Stri Purush Tulana, 1882), Dr. Ambedkar (Hindu Code Bill).
• Indian laws and steps: equality in Articles 14–15, 73rd/74th Amendments (one-third seats for women in local bodies), Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005, and the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (106th Amendment, 2023) reserving one-third seats in Lok Sabha and state assemblies (to apply after the next delimitation).
• Criticism: divided into many schools; some say it ignores men's issues; radical forms seen as anti-family.

Important terms

• Patriarchy – male-dominated social system.
• Gender – socially constructed roles of men and women.
• Suffrage – the right to vote.
• Intersectionality – overlapping of gender with caste, class and race.
• Gender justice – fair treatment and equal opportunity for all genders.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is patriarchy?

Patriarchy is a social system where men hold the main power in the family, economy and politics, and women are placed in a subordinate position.

Q2. What is the difference between sex and gender?

Sex refers to biological differences between men and women. Gender refers to the roles, behaviour and status that society assigns to them, which can change.

Q3. Explain the meaning of feminism and its waves.

• Meaning, aims, "personal is political".
• First, second and third waves with thinkers.
• Present relevance.

Q4. Explain the main types of feminism.

• Liberal, radical, Marxist/socialist, Black/Dalit feminism.
• Main ideas and thinkers of each.
• Criticism.

Q5. Discuss the feminist movement and gender justice in India.

• Social reformers: Phules, Ramabai, Tarabai Shinde, Ambedkar.
• Constitutional provisions and laws.
• Reservation in local bodies and legislatures.
• Remaining challenges: violence, low workforce share, representation.

Exam tip

Name one book per wave; examiners like seeing Wollstonecraft, de Beauvoir and Friedan with dates.

Quick summary

Democracy (लोकशाही) is a form of government in which power rests with the people, who rule directly or through elected representatives. It is based on equality, liberty, rule of law and accountability. Democracy may be direct or indirect (representative), and there are several theories about it: liberal, elitist, pluralist, participatory and Marxist.

Key points

• The word comes from Greek demos (people) and kratos (rule/power).
• Abraham Lincoln (Gettysburg Address, 1863): government of the people, by the people, for the people.
• Seeley: democracy is a government in which everyone has a share.
• Direct democracy: citizens make laws themselves, as in ancient Athens and the Swiss cantons today.
• Indirect democracy: people elect representatives who govern, as in India, the UK, the USA.
• Tools of direct democracy: referendum, initiative, recall, plebiscite.
• Features: popular sovereignty, free and fair elections, universal adult franchise, majority rule with minority rights, rule of law, independent judiciary, free press, accountable government.
• Merits: based on equality and consent; protects rights; educates citizens; peaceful change of government; promotes patriotism.
• Demerits: rule of the ignorant (Plato's criticism), slow decisions, costly elections, party politics and corruption, "tyranny of the majority" (Tocqueville, Mill).
• Liberal theory: individual rights, free market, limited government (Locke, Mill).
• Elitist theory: a small elite always rules (Pareto, Mosca, Michels' "iron law of oligarchy"); Schumpeter saw democracy as competition among elites for votes.
• Pluralist theory: power is spread among many groups (Robert Dahl's "polyarchy").
• Participatory democracy: people should take part actively, not only vote (Rousseau, C. B. Macpherson, Carole Pateman). Panchayati Raj is an Indian example.
• Marxist view: liberal democracy is "bourgeois democracy"; true democracy comes with a classless society.
• Conditions for success: literacy, economic equality, alert citizens, free press, tolerance, strong opposition, honest leaders, decentralisation.
• India is the world's largest democracy by number of voters.

Important terms

• Referendum – people vote directly on a proposed law.
• Initiative – citizens propose a law.
• Recall – voters remove an elected official before his term ends.
• Plebiscite – popular vote on an important political question.
• Polyarchy – rule by many groups (Dahl).

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Define democracy.

Abraham Lincoln defined democracy as "government of the people, by the people, for the people". It is rule in which final power lies with the people.

Q2. What is a referendum?

A referendum is a method of direct democracy in which a proposed law or constitutional change is put before the people for their approval or rejection by vote.

Q3. Explain the merits and demerits of democracy.

• Merits: equality, liberty, consent, accountability, political education, peaceful change.
• Demerits: rule of the incompetent, slow, costly, corruption, tyranny of majority.
• Overall: best available form, as Churchill famously remarked.

Q4. Discuss the elitist theory of democracy.

• Society divided into rulers (elite) and masses.
• Pareto: circulation of elites.
• Mosca: ruling class.
• Michels: iron law of oligarchy in parties.
• Schumpeter: democracy = competition of elites for votes.
• Criticism: underestimates people's power.

Q5. What are the conditions necessary for the success of democracy?

• Education and political awareness.
• Economic equality.
• Free press and public opinion.
• Independent judiciary and rule of law.
• Strong opposition and healthy party system.
• Decentralisation; tolerance and honest leadership.

Exam tip

Give one example for each device of direct democracy (Switzerland is the standard example) and end with conditions for success in Indian context.

Quick summary

Governments can be classified in two main ways. By the division of power between the centre and regions, they are unitary (all power with one central government, as in the UK, France, Sri Lanka) or federal (power divided by the constitution between centre and states, as in the USA, Switzerland, India). By the relation between the executive and the legislature, they are parliamentary (executive responsible to the legislature, as in the UK and India) or presidential (executive separate from the legislature, as in the USA).

Key points

• Classical classification: Aristotle classified governments by the number of rulers and their aim – monarchy/tyranny, aristocracy/oligarchy, polity/democracy.
• Merits: strong, uniform laws, quick decisions, less costly. Demerits: centralisation, neglect of local needs, not suitable for large diverse countries.
• Unitary government: one central government holds all power; local units get only delegated power. Features: single constitution, single citizenship, flexible constitution, no division of powers.
• Features: written and rigid constitution, division of powers, supremacy of the constitution, independent judiciary, bicameral legislature, dual government.
• Merits: unity with diversity, local autonomy, suits large states. Demerits: weak, costly, conflicts between centre and states.
• Federal government: "a political contrivance intended to reconcile national unity and power with the maintenance of state rights" (A. V. Dicey). K. C. Wheare: general and regional governments are each "co-ordinate and independent" within their spheres.
• India is called "quasi-federal" (K. C. Wheare) and a "Union of States" (Article 1): federal with a strong centre.
• Merits: responsible government, harmony of executive and legislature, flexibility, alternative government ready. Demerits: instability with coalitions, cabinet dictatorship, party domination.
• Parliamentary government (cabinet government): the real executive (PM and cabinet) comes from the legislature and is collectively responsible to the lower house. There is a nominal head (King/President) and a real head (PM). The executive can be removed by a vote of no-confidence; the lower house can be dissolved.
• Merits: stability, efficiency, expert ministers (secretaries). Demerits: deadlock between executive and legislature, rigidity, less responsibility.
• Presidential government: the President is both head of state and head of government, elected for a fixed term (USA: 4 years), not responsible to the legislature; based on separation of powers with checks and balances.
• India chose the parliamentary system for its familiarity and responsibility (Dr. Ambedkar in the Constituent Assembly: it gives more responsibility, the presidential gives more stability).

Important terms

• Unitary – power concentrated in the central government.
• Federal – constitutional division of power between two levels.
• Collective responsibility – the cabinet stands or falls together in the lower house.
• Separation of powers – legislature, executive and judiciary kept separate (Montesquieu).
• Checks and balances – each organ limits the others.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is a unitary government?

It is a government in which all powers are vested in one central government by the constitution, and local governments get only the powers the centre delegates. Example: UK, France.

Q2. What is collective responsibility?

In a parliamentary system the whole Council of Ministers is jointly responsible to the lower house; if it loses the house's confidence, all ministers must resign together.

Q3. Explain the features, merits and demerits of a federal government.

• Definition (Dicey, Wheare).
• Features: written rigid constitution, division of powers, independent judiciary, bicameralism.
• Merits and demerits.
• Indian federalism with a unitary bias.

Q4. Explain the features of parliamentary government and evaluate it.

• Nominal and real executive.
• Close relation of executive and legislature, collective responsibility, PM's leadership, dissolution.
• Merits and demerits with Indian/British examples.

Q5. Distinguish between parliamentary and presidential forms of government.

• Executive: dual vs single.
• Relation to legislature: fusion vs separation.
• Responsibility and tenure: no-confidence vs fixed term.
• Stability vs responsibility; examples UK/India vs USA.

Exam tip

A comparison table for Q5 (8 points) scores well; finish with Ambedkar's "responsibility vs stability" remark.

Quick summary

In a modern democracy people rule through representatives. Representation is the process by which elected persons act on behalf of the people. Electoral systems are the rules that turn votes into seats. The main systems are First-Past-the-Post (FPTP), the majority systems (two-round, alternative vote), proportional representation (PR) (list system and single transferable vote) and mixed systems. India uses FPTP for Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha elections and STV for the President and Rajya Sabha.

Key points

• Theories of representation: the delegate theory (the representative follows voters' instructions) and the trustee theory (Edmund Burke, 1774: the representative uses his own judgment for the nation's good).
• Territorial representation: seats based on geographical constituencies (common method).
• Functional / occupational representation: seats for professions or interest groups (guild socialists, G. D. H. Cole).
• Minority representation: reserved seats, separate electorates (Morley-Minto 1909 gave Muslims separate electorates; rejected in independent India), proportional representation.
• Universal adult franchise: every adult citizen can vote without discrimination; in India the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 by the 61st Amendment (1988).
• Merits: simple, cheap, stable governments, close link between voter and MP. Demerits: wasted votes, seats not in proportion to votes, small parties lose.
• First-Past-the-Post (simple plurality): single-member constituency; the candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority. Used in UK, USA, India.
• Two-round / run-off system: if no one gets over 50%, a second round is held (France presidential elections).
• List system: voters choose a party list; seats shared by quota (Israel, Netherlands).
• Single Transferable Vote (STV): voters rank candidates (1, 2, 3...); a quota is fixed and surplus votes are transferred. Thomas Hare and J. S. Mill supported it. India uses it for the President, Vice-President, Rajya Sabha and Legislative Councils.
• Merits: fair to minorities and small parties. Demerits: complex, many parties, unstable coalitions.
• Proportional representation (PR): each party gets seats in proportion to its votes.
• Mixed system: part FPTP, part PR (Germany).
• Electoral reforms debate in India: money power, criminalisation, NOTA (2013), EVMs and VVPAT, state funding of elections.

Important terms

• Constituency – the area that elects a representative.
• Franchise – the right to vote.
• Quota – minimum votes needed to win a seat under STV.
• Wasted vote – votes that do not help elect anyone.
• Separate electorate – a community votes only for its own candidates.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is the First-Past-the-Post system?

It is an electoral system in which each constituency elects one member and the candidate who gets the highest number of votes wins, even if he does not get a majority.

Q2. What is the trustee theory of representation?

Given by Edmund Burke, it says the representative is not just a messenger of voters but should use his own judgment and conscience for the good of the whole nation.

Q3. Explain the meaning and types of representation.

• Meaning of representation.
• Delegate and trustee theories.
• Territorial, functional, minority representation.
• Universal adult franchise.

Q4. Explain the system of proportional representation with its merits and demerits.

• Meaning and aim.
• List system and STV (with a small example of quota).
• Merits and demerits.
• Use in India for indirect elections.

Q5. Compare FPTP with proportional representation. Which suits India?

• Features of both.
• Comparison: simplicity, fairness, stability.
• Why India chose FPTP; debates on reform.

Exam tip

Write the STV quota formula: Quota = (Total valid votes ÷ (Seats + 1)) + 1, ignoring fractions; it shows clear understanding.