इतिहास History

Quick summary

History is built from evidence. For ancient India, historians use two main kinds of sources: archaeological sources (things dug up or found, like coins, inscriptions and monuments) and literary sources (written texts, religious and non-religious, Indian and foreign). Each source has strengths and limits, so historians compare many sources before reaching a conclusion.

Key points

• Sources (साधने) are the raw material of history. Without sources, there is no history.
• Archaeological sources include inscriptions, coins, monuments, sculptures, pottery, tools and the remains of settlements found through excavation.
• Inscriptions (epigraphy) are writings on stone, rock, pillars, copper plates and temple walls. They are dated and hard to change, so they are very reliable.
• The Ashokan edicts are the oldest deciphered inscriptions of India. Most are in the Brahmi script and Prakrit language. James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi in 1837.
• Coins (numismatics) tell us about kings, dates, trade, metals, religion and economic condition. The earliest Indian coins are punch-marked coins, mostly of silver.
• Monuments and sculptures such as stupas, cave temples (Ajanta, Ellora, Karle) and temples show art, religion and technology.
• Literary sources are of two types: religious and secular (non-religious).
• Religious literature: Vedas, Upanishads, Epics (Ramayana, Mahabharata), Puranas; Buddhist texts (Tripitaka, Jatakas); Jain texts (Agamas).
• Secular literature: Kautilya's Arthashastra, Kalidasa's plays, Banabhatta's Harshacharita, Kalhana's Rajatarangini (history of Kashmir).
• Foreign accounts: Megasthenes (Indica), Fa-Hien and Hiuen Tsang (Chinese pilgrims), Al-Biruni (Kitab-ul-Hind), and Greek-Roman writers like the author of Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
• Sangam literature in Tamil is the main source for early South India.

Important terms

• Epigraphy – the study of inscriptions.
• Numismatics – the study of coins.
• Archaeology – the study of the past through material remains found by survey and excavation.
• Edict – an official order of a ruler, often carved on rock or pillar.
• Prashasti – an inscription written in praise of a king, e.g. the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta.
• Excavation – systematic digging of a site to find remains.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What is numismatics?

Numismatics is the study of coins. Coins give information about rulers, their dates, titles, religion, trade, metals used and the economic condition of a period. Punch-marked coins are the earliest coins of India.

Q2. Name two foreign travellers who visited ancient India.

Fa-Hien, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, came in the time of Chandragupta II. Hiuen Tsang came in the time of Harsha and studied at Nalanda.

Q3. Explain the importance of archaeological sources for ancient Indian history.

• Give direct, physical evidence; not easily changed later.
• Inscriptions give names of kings, dates, grants and administration (e.g. Ashokan edicts).
• Coins tell about economy, trade and dynasties.
• Monuments show art, architecture and religion.
• Excavations revealed the Harappan civilization, which no text described.
• Limits: remains may be incomplete; need careful interpretation.

Q4. Discuss literary sources of ancient Indian history.

• Religious: Vedas, Epics, Puranas, Buddhist and Jain texts – society and beliefs.
• Secular: Arthashastra (administration), Harshacharita (Harsha), Rajatarangini (Kashmir).
• Sangam literature for South India.
• Foreign accounts give an outsider's view.
• Limits: dating is difficult, religious bias, exaggeration in praise of kings.

Q5. Write a note on foreign accounts as a source of history.

• Greek: Megasthenes' Indica on Mauryan society and Pataliputra.
• Chinese: Fa-Hien and Hiuen Tsang on Buddhism, society, Nalanda.
• Arab: Al-Biruni's Kitab-ul-Hind on Indian science and customs.
• Useful as they give dates and outside observations.
• Limits: language barrier, short stay, partial understanding.

Exam tip

Always divide sources into archaeological and literary, and give one clear example for each type. Examiners reward examples.

Quick summary

Long before modern states, people of the subcontinent thought of their land as one cultural world called Bharatvarsha. Ancient texts describe its geography, its many janapadas (regional states) and the self-governing village. This topic studies the names of India, the idea of its cultural unity, and the values (dharma, darshan, Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam) that held this diverse land together.

Key points

• Names of the land: Bharatvarsha (land of the Bharatas, in the Puranas and the Mahabharata), Aryavarta (the land of the Aryans, roughly north India between the Himalaya and the Vindhya), Jambudvipa (the island of the Jambu tree, the inner continent of Puranic geography), Indica/India (Greek, from the river Sindhu) and Hindustan (Persian).
• The Vishnu Purana describes Bharatvarsha as the land north of the ocean and south of the Himalaya.
• The idea of unity was cultural, not political: shared epics, pilgrim routes (char dham, 51 shakti peethas, 12 jyotirlingas) and Sanskrit and Prakrit learning linked distant regions.
• Rulers aimed at the ideal of the chakravartin (universal ruler) whose rule spread from sea to sea.
• Janapada: a territory settled by a jana (tribe). By the 6th century BCE the bigger ones became Mahajanapadas.
• Janapadas had kings or gana-sanghas (republics) run by assemblies, as among the Lichchhavis.
• Village self-rule: the village (grama) managed its own affairs through elders, the gramani and later the sabha (as in Chola inscriptions). This tradition is called gram swarajya; Gandhiji later revived the idea.
• Dharma meant duty and moral order, not only religion. Darshan means the schools of Indian philosophy (six orthodox schools, plus Jain, Buddhist and Charvaka).
• Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam ("the world is one family", from the Maha Upanishad) expresses the Indian view of humanity.
• Indian art (temples, sculpture, music, dance) carried common themes across regions while keeping local styles.

Important terms

• Bharatvarsha – the ancient name of the Indian subcontinent in Puranic literature.
• Aryavarta – "abode of the Aryans", the north Indian heartland.
• Jambudvipa – the central continent of Puranic geography, of which Bharatvarsha is a part.
• Janapada – a territorial state formed where a tribe settled.
• Gana-sangha – a republic or oligarchy ruled by an assembly.
• Gram swarajya – self-government of the village.
• Chakravartin – ideal universal ruler.

Important dates and people

• Rigveda mentions the Bharata tribe (c. 1500–1000 BCE).
• 16 Mahajanapadas – 6th century BCE (listed in the Anguttara Nikaya).
• Megasthenes' Indica – c. 300 BCE.
• Radhakumud Mookerji – The Fundamental Unity of India (1914).

5 important questions

Q1. What is the meaning of Jambudvipa?

In Puranic geography the earth has seven island-continents. Jambudvipa, named after the Jambu (jamun) tree, is the central one, and Bharatvarsha is its southern part.

Q2. What is a Janapada?

A janapada was a territory where a jana (tribe) settled down. It had its own ruler or assembly. Large janapadas later grew into Mahajanapadas.

Q3. Explain the different ancient names of India.

• Bharatvarsha: Puranas, the Bharata tribe and King Bharata.
• Aryavarta: Manusmriti, the Himalaya–Vindhya region.
• Jambudvipa: Puranic cosmology; also used in Ashoka's edicts.
• India/Indica: Greek from Sindhu; Hindustan: Persian.
• Conclusion: many names, one cultural identity.

Q4. "The unity of ancient India was cultural rather than political." Discuss.

• Many kingdoms, rarely one ruler over all.
• Common epics, Sanskrit, pilgrim centres in all four directions.
• The chakravartin ideal; trade and pilgrim routes.
• Same values of dharma; similar temple and art forms.
• Conclusion: unity in diversity.

Q5. Write a note on Janapadas and the tradition of village self-government.

• Origin of janapadas; kings and gana-sanghas.
• Assemblies: sabha, samiti; the Lichchhavi republic.
• Village headman, elders, later Chola village assemblies (Uttaramerur).
• Gram swarajya and its link with modern Panchayati Raj.

Exam tip

Learn each name of India with its source text (Purana, Greek, Persian). Examiners like the line "unity in diversity" backed by examples such as pilgrim centres.

Quick summary

Prehistory is the long period before writing. Our knowledge of it comes only from stone tools, bones, pottery and rock paintings. Historians divide it into the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age), followed by the Chalcolithic (copper-stone) cultures. Maharashtra, including Vidarbha, has many important sites.

Key points

• Palaeolithic (c. 2 million – 10,000 BCE): people were hunter-gatherers using hand-axes, cleavers and choppers of quartzite. Sites: Soan valley (Pakistan), Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu), Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), Hunsgi (Karnataka), Nevasa on the Pravara (Maharashtra).
• Robert Bruce Foote found the first Palaeolithic tool in India at Pallavaram near Chennai in 1863.
• Mesolithic (c. 10,000 – 6000 BCE): small, sharp microliths; the climate became warmer; first domestication of animals. Sites: Bagor (Rajasthan), Adamgarh (MP), Langhnaj (Gujarat).
• Bhimbetka rock shelters (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) have paintings of hunting and dancing from Mesolithic times onward.
• Neolithic (from c. 7000 BCE at Mehrgarh): farming, polished stone tools, pottery, settled villages. This change is called the Neolithic Revolution.
• Neolithic sites: Mehrgarh (wheat, barley), Burzahom and Gufkral in Kashmir (pit-dwellings), Chirand (Bihar), Koldihwa (UP, early rice), Utnur and Piklihal (Karnataka, ash mounds).
• Chalcolithic cultures used copper with stone. Examples: Ahar-Banas (Rajasthan), Kayatha and Malwa (MP), and the Jorwe culture of Maharashtra.
• Jorwe sites: Inamgaon (Pune), Daimabad (Ahmednagar, famous for a bronze chariot hoard), Nevasa, Chandoli, Prakash. Painted red-and-black pottery, mud houses, burials of children in urns under the floor.
• Megalithic culture (from c. 1000 BCE): burials marked by large stones, iron tools. Vidarbha sites: Mahurjhari and Junapani near Nagpur, Naikund, Takalghat.

Important terms

• Prehistory – the period before writing.
• Protohistory – a period with a script we cannot read (e.g. Harappan) or known only from later texts.
• Microlith – a tiny stone tool, often fixed on wooden handles.
• Neolithic Revolution – the shift from hunting-gathering to farming and settled life.
• Chalcolithic – copper-stone age.
• Megalith – "big stone"; a stone-marked burial.

Important dates and people

• 1863 – Robert Bruce Foote's discovery at Pallavaram.
• c. 7000 BCE – farming at Mehrgarh.
• 1957 – V. S. Wakankar discovered the Bhimbetka shelters.
• c. 1400–700 BCE – approximate span of the Jorwe culture (dates vary by site).
• H. D. Sankalia – excavated Nevasa, Inamgaon (with M. K. Dhavalikar) and other Deccan sites.

5 important questions

Q1. What are microliths?

Microliths are very small stone tools, usually 1–5 cm long, made in the Mesolithic period. They were set into wood or bone to make arrows, spears and sickles.

Q2. Name two Chalcolithic sites in Maharashtra.

Inamgaon (Pune district) and Daimabad (Ahmednagar district), both of the Jorwe culture.

Q3. Describe the main features of the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic ages.

• Tools: rough core tools → microliths → polished tools.
• Economy: hunting-gathering → early herding → farming.
• Shelter: caves and open camps → seasonal camps → villages.
• Art: rock paintings at Bhimbetka.
• Table or chart comparison earns marks.

Q4. Why is the Neolithic age called a revolution?

• Farming produced surplus food.
• Settled villages, pottery, weaving.
• Domestic animals, division of labour.
• Foundation for later civilisations such as Harappa.

Q5. Write a note on the Chalcolithic cultures of Maharashtra.

• Jorwe culture: time, sites (Inamgaon, Daimabad, Nevasa).
• Houses, pottery, farming of wheat, barley, lentils.
• Burial customs; Daimabad bronzes.
• Megalithic burials of Vidarbha (Mahurjhari, Junapani).

Exam tip

Keep one site from each age ready, with a Maharashtra or Vidarbha example. Local examples make answers stand out.

Quick summary

The Harappan or Indus Valley Civilization was the first urban (city) civilization of the Indian subcontinent. It flourished in the Bronze Age, roughly between 2600 and 1900 BCE in its mature phase, in present-day Pakistan and north-west India. It is famous for planned cities, drainage, standard weights, seals and a script that is still not deciphered.

Key points

• Harappa was discovered first, by excavations led by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921. Mohenjo-daro was excavated by R. D. Banerji in 1922. Sir John Marshall was Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India then.
• It is called "Harappan" after the first site found.
• Important sites: Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), Mohenjo-daro (Sindh), Lothal and Dholavira (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Rakhigarhi and Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab), Chanhudaro.
• Daimabad in Ahmednagar district is a Harappan-related site in Maharashtra.
• Town planning: grid pattern of streets crossing at right angles, citadel (raised area) and lower town, baked-brick houses.
• Drainage: covered drains along streets – one of its best features.
• Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro; large granaries; dockyard at Lothal.
• Economy: agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton), animal domestication, crafts (beads, pottery, metal work) and trade, including with Mesopotamia.
• They used standard weights (mostly cubical) and measures.
• Seals of steatite, often with animals like the unicorn bull, and short inscriptions.
• The script is pictographic and undeciphered; it was usually written right to left.
• Religion (from seals and figurines): worship of a mother goddess, a figure called "Proto-Shiva" (Pashupati seal), trees and animals.
• Decline after about 1900 BCE: theories include floods, drying of rivers, climate change, decline of trade and ecological damage. The old theory of an "Aryan invasion" is not accepted by most historians now.

Important terms

• Citadel – raised, fortified part of a city, probably for important buildings.
• Seal – small carved stone piece used to stamp goods and mark ownership.
• Bronze Age – period when copper-tin alloy tools were used.
• Mature Harappan phase – the main urban phase of the civilization.
• Terracotta – baked clay, used for toys and figurines.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who discovered Harappa and Mohenjo-daro?

Harappa was excavated by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921 and Mohenjo-daro by R. D. Banerji in 1922, under Sir John Marshall of the Archaeological Survey of India.

Q2. What was the Great Bath?

The Great Bath is a large, brick-lined water tank found at Mohenjo-daro. It was made watertight and was probably used for ritual bathing.

Q3. Describe the town planning of the Harappan civilization.

• Cities divided into citadel and lower town.
• Roads in a grid, crossing at right angles.
• Houses of standard baked bricks, with wells and bathrooms.
• Covered drains linked to house drains.
• Public buildings: Great Bath, granaries, dockyard at Lothal.
• Shows strong civic authority and planning.

Q4. Explain the economic life of the Harappan people.

• Farming of wheat, barley, peas, cotton.
• Domesticated cattle, sheep, goats.
• Crafts: pottery, bead-making, metal work, cotton weaving.
• Internal and foreign trade, including Mesopotamia.
• Standard weights and seals used in trade.

Q5. Discuss the causes of the decline of the Harappan civilization.

• Floods and change in river courses.
• Drying of rivers such as the Ghaggar-Hakra.
• Climate change and less rainfall.
• Decline in foreign trade.
• Deforestation and soil damage.
• Decline was gradual; no single cause is accepted.

Exam tip

Mention site names with their special feature (Lothal – dockyard, Kalibangan – ploughed field and fire altars, Dholavira – water reservoirs). This makes answers stand out.

Quick summary

The Vedic Age is the period in which the Vedas were composed, roughly 1500–600 BCE. It is divided into the Early (Rig) Vedic period (about 1500–1000 BCE) and the Later Vedic period (about 1000–600 BCE). In this period, pastoral life slowly changed into settled farming, small tribes grew into kingdoms, and the varna system became rigid.

Key points

• The four Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. The Rigveda is the oldest, with 1028 hymns in 10 mandalas.
• Other Vedic literature: Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.
• Early Vedic people lived in the region of Sapta Sindhu (land of seven rivers) in north-west India.
• Early Vedic economy was mainly pastoral; cattle were the main wealth. The word gavishti (search for cows) meant war.
• Political unit was the tribe (jana), led by a chief (rajan). Assemblies like sabha and samiti advised him.
• Women had a respected position in the early period; some, like Apala and Ghosha, composed hymns.
• Main gods: Indra, Agni, Varuna, Soma. Worship was through hymns and sacrifices, not temples.
• In the Later Vedic period people moved east into the Ganga-Yamuna doab. Iron came into use (Painted Grey Ware culture).
• Agriculture became the main occupation; kingdoms (janapadas) grew larger and kings performed big sacrifices like Rajasuya and Ashvamedha.
• The varna system (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) became hereditary and rigid. The four ashramas were defined.
• Assemblies lost importance; the position of women declined.
• New gods like Prajapati, Vishnu and Rudra became important; rituals became complex.
• The Upanishads questioned rituals and taught about Brahman, Atman, karma and moksha.

Important terms

• Jana – tribe; Vish – clan; Grama – village.
• Sabha and Samiti – tribal assemblies.
• Varna – social order based on occupation, later on birth.
• Ashrama – four stages of life: Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, Sannyasa.
• Bali – voluntary offering to the chief, later a tax.
• Upanishads – philosophical texts at the end of the Vedas (Vedanta).

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Name the four Vedas.

Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. The Rigveda is the oldest and has 1028 hymns in ten mandalas.

Q2. What were the Sabha and Samiti?

They were popular assemblies of the Early Vedic tribes. They discussed tribal matters and advised and checked the chief. Their power declined in the Later Vedic period.

Q3. Describe the social and economic life of the Early Vedic people.

• Pastoral economy; cattle as wealth.
• Some farming of barley (yava).
• Society based on kinship; varna not rigid.
• Women respected, took part in assemblies and rituals.
• Simple worship of nature gods through hymns.

Q4. Compare the Early Vedic and Later Vedic periods.

• Area: Sapta Sindhu → Ganga-Yamuna doab.
• Economy: pastoral → agricultural, use of iron.
• Polity: tribal chief → territorial king, big sacrifices.
• Society: flexible varna → rigid, birth-based varna.
• Women: respected → declining status.
• Religion: simple hymns → complex rituals; Upanishadic philosophy.

Q5. Write a note on the Upanishads.

• Philosophical texts, also called Vedanta.
• Discuss Brahman (universal soul) and Atman (individual soul) and their unity.
• Teach karma, rebirth and moksha.
• Gave importance to knowledge over ritual.
• Influenced later Indian philosophy, Jainism and Buddhism.

Exam tip

A comparison table of Early and Later Vedic periods is the most useful tool for long answers in this chapter.

Quick summary

Ancient India produced a huge body of literature in Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit. It includes religious texts (Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, Tripitaka, Agamas), epics, and secular works on politics, drama, grammar and history. Together they form the Indian Knowledge System and also serve as sources of history. This topic also covers key ideas from this tradition: the purusharthas, ahimsa and respect for nature.

Key points

• Vedas: Rigveda (hymns), Samaveda (melodies), Yajurveda (rituals) and Atharvaveda (charms, daily life). Each Veda has four layers: Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, Upanishad.
• Upanishads (also called Vedanta) discuss Brahman (ultimate reality), Atman (self), karma and moksha. Famous ones: Brihadaranyaka, Chhandogya, Katha, Isha.
• Vedangas (six "limbs" of the Veda): Shiksha (pronunciation), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (word meanings), Chhandas (metre), Jyotisha (astronomy).
• Epics: the Ramayana (Valmiki) and the Mahabharata (Vyasa), which contains the Bhagavad Gita.
• Puranas: 18 Mahapuranas (e.g. Vishnu, Vayu, Matsya, Bhagavata) with stories, genealogies of dynasties and religious teaching.
• Smritis and Dharmashastras: rules of social life, e.g. Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti.
• Buddhist literature: the Pali Tripitaka – Vinaya Pitaka (rules for monks), Sutta Pitaka (Buddha's sermons), Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy); also the Jatakas.
• Jain literature: the Agamas (Angas), compiled at the Valabhi council (5th century CE) in Prakrit.
• Lokayata/Charvaka: a materialist school that rejected the Vedas and life after death.
• Secular works: Kautilya's Arthashastra (statecraft), Bharata's Natyashastra (drama, music, dance), Panini's Ashtadhyayi (grammar), Kalhana's Rajatarangini (history of Kashmir, 12th century).
• Purusharthas: four goals of life – dharma (duty), artha (wealth), kama (desire) and moksha (liberation).
• Ahimsa (non-violence) is central to Jainism, Buddhism and Hindu thought; reverence for rivers, trees and animals shows an early environmental ethic.

Important terms

• Shruti – "heard" texts (the Vedas), believed to be revealed.
• Smriti – "remembered" texts made by human authors (Smritis, epics, Puranas).
• Vedanta – "end of the Veda", the Upanishads.
• Pitaka – "basket", a division of the Buddhist canon.
• Purushartha – an aim of human life.
• Ahimsa – not harming any living being.

Important dates and people

• Rigveda – c. 1500–1000 BCE.
• Panini – c. 5th–4th century BCE.
• Kautilya (Chanakya) – minister of Chandragupta Maurya, c. 4th century BCE (the present text may be later).
• Kalhana – Rajatarangini, 1148–49 CE.

5 important questions

Q1. Name the four Vedas.

Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.

Q2. What are the three Pitakas?

Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules), Sutta Pitaka (teachings of the Buddha) and Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy).

Q3. Give an account of Vedic literature.

• Four Vedas and their content.
• Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads.
• Vedangas.
• Importance for religion, society and history.

Q4. Explain the importance of secular literature as a source of ancient Indian history.

• Arthashastra: administration, economy, spies.
• Natyashastra: arts.
• Ashtadhyayi: language and society.
• Rajatarangini: first critical history.
• Kalidasa and other poets: social life.
• Limitations: dates uncertain, exaggeration.

Q5. Discuss the concepts of Purushartha and Ahimsa in the Indian tradition.

• Four purusharthas and their balance.
• Ahimsa in Jainism (strict), Buddhism (middle path) and Hindu texts.
• Respect for nature: sacred groves, rivers, animals.
• Relevance today.

Exam tip

For "Vedic literature" answers, draw a small chart: Veda → Samhita → Brahmana → Aranyaka → Upanishad. It saves words and earns marks.

Quick summary

In the 6th century BCE north India had sixteen large states called Mahajanapadas. Some were monarchies and some were republics (gana-sanghas). Over about two hundred years Magadha defeated its rivals and became the first great kingdom of India under the Haryanka, Shishunaga and Nanda dynasties. This prepared the way for the Mauryan Empire.

Key points

• Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya and Jain text Bhagavati Sutra list sixteen Mahajanapadas.
• The sixteen: Kashi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Ashmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja.
• Ashmaka (Assaka), on the Godavari, was the only Mahajanapada in the south (Deccan).
• Vajji (capital Vaishali) was a confederacy of clans including the Lichchhavis; Malla was also a republic.
• The four strongest were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti; Magadha finally defeated them all.
• Haryanka dynasty: Bimbisara (c. 544–492 BCE) used marriage alliances and conquered Anga; capital Rajagriha. His son Ajatashatru defeated Kosala and Vajji. Udayin founded Pataliputra.
• Shishunaga dynasty: Shishunaga destroyed the power of Avanti. Kalashoka held the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.
• Nanda dynasty: Mahapadma Nanda was called Ekarat (sole ruler) and sarva-kshatrantaka; the Nandas had a huge army and treasury. Dhanananda was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321 BCE).
• Reasons for Magadha's rise: fertile Ganga plain; iron mines of nearby hills (present Jharkhand); rivers for transport; elephants for the army; well-protected capitals (Rajagriha ringed by hills, Pataliputra by rivers); ambitious rulers; growing trade and towns.
• This period saw the second urbanisation of India, punch-marked coins and the rise of new religions.

Important terms

• Mahajanapada – a large territorial state of the 6th century BCE.
• Gana-sangha – a republic ruled by an assembly of clan heads.
• Punch-marked coins – the earliest Indian coins, made of silver with symbols punched on them.
• Ekarat – sole sovereign; a title of Mahapadma Nanda.
• Second urbanisation – the growth of cities in the Ganga valley after the Harappan cities.

Important dates and people

• c. 544–492 BCE – Bimbisara.
• c. 492–460 BCE – Ajatashatru; First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha (c. 483 BCE).
• c. 383 BCE – Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali (under Kalashoka).
• c. 321 BCE – end of the Nandas.

5 important questions

Q1. Which was the only Mahajanapada in south India?

Ashmaka (Assaka), on the banks of the Godavari in the Deccan.

Q2. Who founded Pataliputra?

Udayin (Udayabhadra), the son of Ajatashatru, of the Haryanka dynasty.

Q3. Describe the sixteen Mahajanapadas.

• Source texts.
• List with capitals (e.g. Magadha–Rajagriha, Kosala–Shravasti, Avanti–Ujjain, Vatsa–Kaushambi).
• Monarchies vs republics.
• Struggle among the four big states.

Q4. Explain the causes of the rise of Magadha.

• Geography: fertile land, rivers, forests.
• Iron and elephants.
• Strong capitals.
• Able rulers and diplomacy.
• Economic growth and an open society.

Q5. Give an account of the Haryanka and Nanda dynasties.

• Bimbisara: alliances, Anga, administration.
• Ajatashatru: wars with Kosala, Vajji; new weapons (mahashilakantaka, rathamusala).
• Nandas: wealth, army, unpopularity.
• Fall to Chandragupta and Kautilya.

Exam tip

A neat table of the sixteen Mahajanapadas with capitals is a sure scorer. Learn at least eight capitals.

Quick summary

In the 6th century BCE many new religious ideas arose in the Ganga valley as a reaction against costly Vedic rituals, priestly power and the rigid varna system. Jainism, taught by Vardhamana Mahavira, and Buddhism, founded by Gautama Buddha, were the most important. Both stressed right conduct, non-violence and simple living, and spoke in the people's language.

Key points

• Causes of rise: complex and expensive rituals, dominance of Brahmanas, rigid caste system, animal sacrifice harming agriculture, rise of trade and cities, and Vaishyas wanting higher status.
• Jainism has 24 Tirthankaras. Rishabhanatha was the first, Parshvanatha the 23rd and Mahavira the 24th.
• Mahavira was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali. He attained kaivalya (supreme knowledge) after 12 years of hard penance and died at Pavapuri.
• Five vows of Jainism: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Aparigraha (non-possession) and Brahmacharya (celibacy). Mahavira added the fifth.
• Triratna (three jewels) of Jainism: right faith, right knowledge, right conduct.
• Jainism later split into Shvetambara (white-clad) and Digambara (sky-clad).
• Buddha (Siddhartha) was born at Lumbini (now Nepal), attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon at Sarnath and died (mahaparinirvana) at Kushinagar.
• Buddha's teaching: Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, the "Middle Path" between luxury and severe penance.
• The Sangha (order of monks and nuns) spread Buddhism. The Tripitaka are its sacred texts, in Pali.
• Buddhist councils were held at Rajagriha, Vaishali, Pataliputra (under Ashoka) and Kashmir (under Kanishka).
• Buddhism split into Hinayana and Mahayana.
• Contribution: stupas, viharas, chaityas, the caves of Ajanta and Karle, universities like Nalanda, spread of Indian culture to Asia.

Important terms

• Tirthankara – "ford-maker", a great Jain teacher.
• Kaivalya – supreme knowledge in Jainism.
• Nirvana – freedom from suffering and the cycle of rebirth.
• Sangha – Buddhist community of monks and nuns.
• Stupa – dome-shaped structure holding relics.
• Anekantavada – Jain idea that truth has many sides.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. What are the Triratnas of Jainism?

Right faith (samyak darshana), right knowledge (samyak jnana) and right conduct (samyak charitra). Together they lead to liberation.

Q2. State the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism.

1. Life is full of suffering (dukkha). 2. Suffering has a cause – desire (trishna). 3. Suffering can end. 4. The way to end it is the Eightfold Path.

Q3. Explain the causes of the rise of new religions in the 6th century BCE.

• Costly and complex Vedic rituals.
• Dominance of priests.
• Rigid varna system; low status of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas versus Brahmanas.
• Animal sacrifice harmful to farming.
• Growth of trade, towns and a merchant class.
• Teaching in Prakrit/Pali, the people's language.

Q4. Describe the teachings of Gautama Buddha.

• Four Noble Truths.
• Eightfold Path: right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration.
• Middle Path; non-violence; equality.
• Law of karma; goal of nirvana.
• Rejected caste and rituals.

Q5. Compare Jainism and Buddhism.

• Both rejected Vedic authority, rituals and caste.
• Both stressed ahimsa and karma.
• Jainism: extreme penance; Buddhism: Middle Path.
• Jainism believes in soul in all beings; Buddhism does not stress a permanent soul.
• Jainism stayed mostly in India; Buddhism spread across Asia.

Exam tip

Learn the four places of Buddha's life (Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar) and the five vows of Jainism – they come often in short questions.

Quick summary

North-west India came into contact with two foreign powers before the Mauryas: the Achaemenid Persians in the 6th century BCE and the Macedonian king Alexander in 327–325 BCE. The Persian rule lasted longer and influenced script and administration; Alexander's campaign was short but opened routes between India and the Greek world and helped Chandragupta Maurya rise.

Key points

• Cyrus (558–530 BCE), founder of the Achaemenid empire, reached the north-west frontier.
• Darius I (522–486 BCE) conquered Gandhara and part of the Indus region. His Behistun and other inscriptions name Gandara and Hindush among his provinces.
• Herodotus says the Indian province was the 20th satrapy and paid 360 talents of gold dust a year, the largest tribute of any province.
• Indian soldiers fought in the Persian army against the Greeks (under Xerxes).
• Effects of Persian contact: the Kharoshthi script (written right to left, derived from Aramaic); growth of trade; idea of rock inscriptions; some scholars see Persian influence on Mauryan pillars and court practice.
• Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush in 327 BCE. Ambhi, king of Taxila, submitted to him.
• Battle of the Hydaspes (Jhelum), 326 BCE: Alexander defeated Porus (Puru), but impressed by his courage, gave his kingdom back.
• At the Beas (Hyphasis) his tired soldiers refused to go further east, partly from fear of the powerful Nanda army.
• He returned down the Indus and left India in 325 BCE; he died at Babylon in 323 BCE.
• Effects of Alexander's invasion: new land and sea routes; Greek settlements in the north-west; the small states of Punjab were weakened, helping Chandragupta unify the region; exact Greek dates help fix Indian chronology; later Indo-Greek kingdoms and Gandhara art grew from this contact.
• Greek writers like Arrian, Strabo and Plutarch (using earlier accounts) are our main sources.

Important terms

• Achaemenid – the ruling dynasty of the first Persian empire.
• Satrapy – a province of the Persian empire, ruled by a satrap (governor).
• Kharoshthi – a script of the north-west written from right to left.
• Hydaspes – Greek name of the Jhelum river.
• Hyphasis – Greek name of the Beas river.

Important dates and people

• 522–486 BCE – Darius I.
• 326 BCE – Battle of the Hydaspes, Alexander vs Porus.
• 325 BCE – Alexander leaves India.
• 323 BCE – death of Alexander at Babylon.

5 important questions

Q1. What was the Kharoshthi script?

Kharoshthi was a script used in north-west India, written from right to left. It developed from the Aramaic script brought by the Persians. Some of Ashoka's edicts in the north-west are in Kharoshthi.

Q2. Who was Porus?

Porus (Puru) was the ruler of the region between the Jhelum and the Chenab. He fought Alexander at the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BCE.

Q3. Describe the Persian invasion and its effects on India.

• Cyrus and Darius I; inscriptions; 20th satrapy.
• Tribute and Indian soldiers.
• Effects: Kharoshthi, trade, inscriptions, art and administration.

Q4. Give an account of Alexander's invasion of India.

• Background and route.
• Ambhi's submission; Battle of the Hydaspes.
• Mutiny at the Beas; return and death.

Q5. Assess the effects of Alexander's invasion.

• Political: unity helped by the weakening of small states; Chandragupta.
• Cultural: Greek contact, later Gandhara art, coins.
• Trade routes.
• Historical chronology.
• Limits: Indian texts barely mention him.

Exam tip

Write Greek and Indian river names together (Hydaspes = Jhelum, Hyphasis = Beas). Examiners reward that precision.

Quick summary

The Mauryan Empire (c. 321–185 BCE) was the first large empire covering most of the Indian subcontinent. It was founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Kautilya (Chanakya). Its greatest ruler, Ashoka, is remembered for his policy of Dhamma after the Kalinga war. The empire had a strong, centralised administration.

Key points

• Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda dynasty of Magadha around 321 BCE. Capital: Pataliputra (modern Patna).
• He defeated the Greek general Seleucus Nikator, who then sent Megasthenes as ambassador.
• According to Jain tradition, Chandragupta became a Jain and died at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka).
• Bindusara, his son, extended the empire to the south.
• Ashoka (c. 268–232 BCE) fought the Kalinga war (c. 261 BCE). The bloodshed changed him; he adopted Buddhism and the policy of Dhamma.
• Dhamma meant moral conduct: respect for elders, kindness to servants and animals, tolerance of all sects, truthfulness and non-violence.
• Ashoka appointed Dhamma Mahamattas to spread Dhamma and sent missionaries abroad, including his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
• His edicts (rock and pillar) spread his message across the empire.
• The Lion Capital of Sarnath is India's national emblem; the wheel from it is on the national flag.
• Administration: king at the centre, council of ministers (mantriparishad), provinces under princes (kumaras), many departments under adhyakshas, a large army and a spy system.
• Land revenue was the main income, usually one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce.
• Decline: weak successors, huge expenses, provincial revolts, and finally the last king Brihadratha was killed by his general Pushyamitra Shunga (c. 185 BCE).

Important terms

• Dhamma – Ashoka's moral code for all people.
• Arthashastra – Kautilya's book on politics, economy and administration.
• Indica – Megasthenes' account of India.
• Mantriparishad – council of ministers.
• Samaharta – chief collector of revenue.
• Sannidhata – treasurer.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who was Megasthenes?

Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus Nikator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote Indica, describing Pataliputra and Mauryan society. Only parts survive through later writers.

Q2. What was the effect of the Kalinga war on Ashoka?

The huge killing in the Kalinga war filled Ashoka with remorse. He gave up war of conquest (digvijaya) and adopted dhamma-vijaya, conquest by moral law.

Q3. Explain Ashoka's Dhamma.

• A moral code, not a new religion.
• Respect for parents, elders, teachers.
• Kindness to slaves, servants, animals.
• Tolerance and respect for all sects.
• Non-violence; ban on some animal sacrifices.
• Spread through edicts, Dhamma Mahamattas and missions abroad.

Q4. Describe the Mauryan administration.

• Centralised monarchy; king as supreme head.
• Mantriparishad of ministers.
• Departments under adhyakshas (superintendents).
• Provinces under kumaras; districts and villages below.
• City administration of Pataliputra by committees (Megasthenes).
• Strong army and spy network; land revenue system.

Q5. Discuss the causes of the decline of the Mauryan Empire.

• Weak successors after Ashoka.
• Division of the empire.
• Financial burden of army and officials.
• Revolts in distant provinces.
• Some argue Ashoka's pacifist policy weakened the army (debated).
• Murder of Brihadratha by Pushyamitra Shunga.

Exam tip

For any Mauryan answer, quote both Arthashastra and Indica as sources – it shows you know where the facts come from.

Quick summary

After the Mauryas (c. 185 BCE), India split into several kingdoms. In the Deccan, the Satavahanas ruled with Pratishthan (Paithan, Maharashtra) as an important centre. In the north-west and north, the Kushanas built a large empire, with Kanishka as their greatest king. This period saw growth of trade, Buddhist art and new schools of sculpture.

Key points

• Post-Mauryan powers: Shungas and Kanvas in Magadha, Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, Kushanas in the north-west, and Satavahanas in the Deccan.
• Satavahanas (also called Andhras in the Puranas) were founded by Simuka.
• Their capital or main centre was Pratishthan (Paithan) on the Godavari; Amaravati and Dhanyakataka were also important.
• Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest Satavahana king. He defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana. His achievements are recorded in the Nashik inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri.
• Satavahana kings used their mothers' names (matronymics), e.g. Gautamiputra, Vasishthiputra.
• They issued lead and potin coins and gave land grants to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks.
• Satavahana period saw rock-cut caves at Karle, Nashik, Bhaja and Ajanta (early caves) in Maharashtra.
• King Hala is credited with the Gathasaptashati in Maharashtri Prakrit.
• Kushanas came from Central Asia (Yuezhi tribe). Kujula Kadphises founded the dynasty.
• Kanishka started the Shaka era in 78 CE (still used in the Indian national calendar). His capitals were Purushapura (Peshawar) and Mathura.
• Kanishka patronised Mahayana Buddhism and held the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir. Scholars Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra and Nagarjuna are linked with his age.
• Kushanas issued many gold coins.
• Art: Gandhara school (Greek influence, grey stone) and Mathura school (local red sandstone) of sculpture developed.
• Trade with Rome and Central Asia grew; the Silk Route passed through Kushana land.

Important terms

• Matronymic – naming after the mother, as Satavahana kings did.
• Gandhara art – Buddhist sculpture with Greek-Roman features.
• Mathura art – indigenous style using spotted red sandstone.
• Chaitya – Buddhist prayer hall; Vihara – monastery.
• Shaka era – era starting in 78 CE, linked with Kanishka.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who was Gautamiputra Satakarni?

He was the greatest Satavahana ruler. He defeated the Shaka king Nahapana and restored Satavahana power. The Nashik inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri describes his achievements.

Q2. What is the Shaka era?

The Shaka era began in 78 CE and is generally linked to the Kushana king Kanishka. India's national calendar is based on it.

Q3. Describe the achievements of the Satavahanas.

• Ruled the Deccan for about four centuries.
• Defeated foreign Shakas under Gautamiputra.
• Encouraged trade through ports on the west coast.
• Land grants to Brahmanas and Buddhists.
• Rock-cut caves: Karle, Nashik, Bhaja.
• Prakrit literature, e.g. Gathasaptashati.

Q4. Write a note on Kanishka.

• Greatest Kushana king; capital Purushapura.
• Empire from Central Asia to the Ganga plains.
• Started the Shaka era (78 CE).
• Patron of Mahayana Buddhism; Fourth Council in Kashmir.
• Scholars: Ashvaghosha, Nagarjuna, Charaka (traditionally).
• Gandhara and Mathura art flourished.

Q5. Compare Gandhara and Mathura schools of art.

• Gandhara: Greek-Roman influence, grey/blue-grey stone, wavy hair, realistic body.
• Mathura: indigenous, spotted red sandstone, smiling round face.
• Gandhara: mainly Buddhist themes.
• Mathura: Buddhist, Jain and Hindu images.
• Both made early images of the Buddha.

Exam tip

Students from Maharashtra should link the Satavahanas with local places – Paithan, Nashik, Karle – examiners like regional examples.

Quick summary

The Sangam Age (roughly 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE) is the early historic period of the far south, known from a rich body of Tamil poetry. Three ruling families, the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas, controlled the region. Sangam poems describe kings, wars, farming, trade with Rome and the daily life of people in five kinds of landscape.

Key points

• Sangam means an assembly of poets. Tradition speaks of three Sangams held at Madurai under Pandya patronage; only works of the third survive.
• Literature: Tolkappiyam (grammar and poetics), Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies), Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls), and the Tirukkural of Tiruvalluvar (ethics). The epics Silappadikaram (Ilango Adigal) and Manimekalai (Sattanar) belong to the period just after.
• Cheras: Kerala coast; capital Vanji (Karur); emblem the bow. Senguttuvan started the worship of Kannagi (Pattini).
• Cholas: Kaveri delta; capitals Uraiyur and the port Puhar (Kaveripattinam); emblem the tiger. Karikala is credited with the Kallanai (Grand Anicut) on the Kaveri.
• Pandyas: capital Madurai; emblem the fish; patrons of the Sangam. Nedunjeliyan won the battle of Talaiyalanganam.
• Smaller chiefs called Velir also ruled.
• Tinai: poets described five landscapes – kurinji (hills), mullai (forest/pasture), marutam (farmland), neytal (coast) and palai (dry land), each with its own way of life.
• Poems are of two kinds: akam (inner – love) and puram (outer – war, kings, charity).
• Trade: pepper, pearls, muslin, ivory and gems went to Rome; gold coins came back. Ports: Muziris, Puhar, Korkai, Arikamedu (near Puducherry). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes this trade, and Pliny complained of Roman gold drain.
• Society included bards (panar), farmers (vellalar), merchants and women poets like Avvaiyar. Murugan was a popular deity.

Important terms

• Sangam – an assembly of Tamil poets.
• Tinai – landscape-based poetic division of land and life.
• Akam / Puram – poems of inner life (love) / outer life (war, kingship).
• Velir – minor chieftains of the Sangam period.
• Muziris – a major port on the Kerala coast for Roman trade.

Important dates and people

• c. 3rd century BCE – 3rd century CE – Sangam period (dates are approximate).
• Karikala Chola – Kallanai dam on the Kaveri.
• Tiruvalluvar – Tirukkural.
• 1st century CE – Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

5 important questions

Q1. What is Tinai?

Tinai is the Sangam idea of five landscapes – hills, forests, farmland, coast and dry land. Each tinai had its own occupation, god and mood in poetry.

Q2. Name two Sangam-period ports.

Muziris (Kerala) and Puhar or Kaveripattinam (Chola country). Arikamedu and Korkai are other answers.

Q3. Describe Sangam literature as a source of history.

• Tolkappiyam, Ettuthogai, Pattuppattu, Tirukkural.
• Akam and puram poems.
• Information on kings, society, economy.
• Limits: dating, poetic exaggeration.

Q4. Write about the three kingdoms of the Sangam Age.

• Cheras: area, capital, emblem, Senguttuvan.
• Cholas: Karikala, Puhar, Kallanai.
• Pandyas: Madurai, Sangam, Nedunjeliyan.
• Constant rivalry.

Q5. Explain the economy and trade of the Sangam Age.

• Agriculture and irrigation.
• Crafts: weaving, pearls.
• Roman trade, ports, Roman coins.
• Arikamedu evidence.

Exam tip

Learn the three kingdoms as a table: capital, emblem, famous king. One small table answers most short questions.

Quick summary

The Gupta dynasty ruled north India from about 320 CE to the late 5th century CE. The period is often called the "Classical Age" because of great progress in literature, science, art and religion. Famous rulers were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta and Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).

Key points

• Chandragupta I (c. 320 CE) is taken as the real founder. He married the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi, which raised his status. The Gupta era starts from 319–320 CE.
• Samudragupta was a great conqueror. His campaigns are described in the Allahabad (Prayag) Pillar inscription written by his court poet Harisena.
• He defeated kings of north India directly and made south Indian kings accept his overlordship, then returned their kingdoms. Historian V. A. Smith called him the "Napoleon of India".
• Samudragupta was also a poet and musician; coins show him playing the veena.
• Chandragupta II defeated the Shakas of western India, gaining ports and trade. He took the title Vikramaditya.
• He made a marriage alliance with the Vakatakas of the Deccan (his daughter Prabhavatigupta married Rudrasena II).
• Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien visited India in his reign.
• Kumaragupta I is linked with the founding of Nalanda. Skandagupta fought the Hunas.
• Literature: Kalidasa (Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha), Vishakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa), Shudraka (Mrichchhakatika). The Puranas took their final form.
• Science: Aryabhata (Aryabhatiya) said the earth rotates on its axis and explained eclipses; Varahamihira (Brihat Samhita); the decimal system and zero developed in this era.
• Art: Ajanta paintings (some caves of this period), Sarnath Buddha images, early stone temples like the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh; the iron pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi) that does not rust.
• Religion: rise of Bhagavatism (Vaishnavism) and Shaivism; Buddhism and Jainism also continued.
• Decline: Huna invasions, weak successors, rise of feudatories, loss of trade.

Important terms

• Prashasti – praise inscription, e.g. Prayag Prashasti.
• Golden Age – term used by some historians for the Gupta period because of cultural progress; today it is used with caution.
• Agrahara – tax-free land grant to Brahmanas.
• Feudatory (samanta) – subordinate ruler.
• Dinara – Gupta gold coin.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Why was Samudragupta called the "Napoleon of India"?

Because of his many successful military campaigns across north and south India, described in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Historian V. A. Smith gave him this title.

Q2. Name two scientists of the Gupta age.

Aryabhata, who wrote Aryabhatiya and said the earth rotates on its axis, and Varahamihira, who wrote Brihat Samhita.

Q3. Describe the achievements of Chandragupta II.

• Defeated the Shakas of western India.
• Gained western ports and trade.
• Marriage alliance with the Vakatakas.
• Title Vikramaditya; capital also at Ujjain (tradition).
• Patron of learning; Fa-Hien's account praises his rule.

Q4. Why is the Gupta age called the Classical Age?

• Peak of Sanskrit literature – Kalidasa.
• Science and mathematics – Aryabhata, zero, decimal.
• Art – Ajanta, Sarnath sculptures, temple building.
• Religious revival with tolerance.
• Prosperous trade and gold coins.
• Note: benefits mainly for upper classes; caste rigidity grew.

Q5. Discuss the causes of the decline of the Gupta Empire.

• Huna invasions.
• Weak later rulers.
• Rise of feudatories (Maukharis, Maitrakas).
• Fall in trade and gold coinage quality.
• Succession disputes.

Exam tip

In "Golden Age" questions, give both sides – achievements and limits – to score full marks.

Quick summary

The Vakatakas ruled the Deccan, with their heartland in Vidarbha, from the mid-3rd to the late 5th century CE. They were contemporaries and relatives of the Guptas. Their main branch ruled near present-day Nagpur and Ramtek, and their Vatsagulma (Washim) branch is linked with the later Ajanta caves. For students in Vidarbha this is local history.

Key points

• Vindhyashakti (c. 250 CE) founded the dynasty. The Puranas and the Ajanta inscription of Varahadeva mention him.
• Pravarasena I was the most powerful early king. He performed Vedic sacrifices including the Ashvamedha and Vajapeya, and was the only Vakataka to take the title Samrat.
• After him the kingdom split into two branches: the main (Nandivardhana–Pravarapura) branch in eastern Vidarbha and the Vatsagulma branch (Washim) in western Vidarbha.
• Main-branch capitals: Nandivardhana (Nagardhan, near Ramtek, Nagpur district) and later Pravarapura, identified by many scholars with Mansar near Ramtek, where excavations found a palace-temple complex.
• Rudrasena II married Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Chandragupta II. After his early death she ruled as regent for her young sons, which brought strong Gupta influence. Her copper-plate grants (e.g. the Poona plates) are key sources.
• Pravarasena II was a poet; he wrote the Prakrit poem Setubandha (also called Ravanavaho). He founded Pravarapura.
• Tradition links Kalidasa with the Vakataka court; the Ramagiri of his Meghaduta is commonly identified with Ramtek.
• Harishena (c. 475–500 CE) of the Vatsagulma branch was the greatest ruler. His minister Varahadeva dedicated Ajanta Cave 16, and many of the later Ajanta caves (including Cave 17) were made in his reign.
• Vakatakas were mainly Shaivas but supported Buddhist art.
• They used Sanskrit in copper-plate land grants and Maharashtri Prakrit in literature.
• After Harishena the dynasty declined; the Vishnukundins and later the Chalukyas took over the region.

Important terms

• Vatsagulma – present-day Washim, seat of the western Vakataka branch.
• Nandivardhana – Nagardhan near Ramtek, an early capital of the main branch.
• Regent – a person who rules on behalf of a child king.
• Setubandha – Prakrit poem on Rama building the bridge to Lanka.
• Copper-plate grant – a land grant inscribed on copper plates.

Important dates and people

• c. 250 CE – Vindhyashakti.
• c. 380s–390s CE – marriage of Rudrasena II and Prabhavatigupta (approximate).
• c. 475–500 CE – Harishena; later Ajanta caves.
• Varahadeva – minister of Harishena, Ajanta Cave 16 inscription.

5 important questions

Q1. Who was Prabhavatigupta?

She was the daughter of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II and the queen of Vakataka king Rudrasena II. She ruled as regent for her minor sons after her husband's death.

Q2. What is Setubandha?

A Prakrit poem by the Vakataka king Pravarasena II describing Rama's bridge to Lanka.

Q3. Trace the political history of the Vakatakas.

• Vindhyashakti and Pravarasena I.
• Two branches and their capitals.
• Gupta marriage and Prabhavatigupta's regency.
• Pravarasena II, Harishena; decline.

Q4. Describe the relations between the Vakatakas and the Guptas.

• Chandragupta II's diplomacy against the Shakas.
• Marriage alliance and regency.
• Cultural influence: Sanskrit grants, literature.
• Benefits to both.

Q5. Assess the cultural contribution of the Vakatakas.

• Literature: Setubandha; link with Kalidasa.
• Ajanta caves under Harishena.
• Temples and Mansar site near Ramtek.
• Patronage of both Shaiva and Buddhist faiths.

Exam tip

Always link the Vakatakas with Vidarbha places: Nagardhan, Ramtek, Mansar, Washim and Ajanta. Local examples impress RTMNU examiners.

Quick summary

After the Guptas, Harshavardhana (606–647 CE) ruled a large kingdom in north India from Thanesar and later Kanauj. In the south, three powers stand out: the Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi), the Pallavas of Kanchi, and later the Cholas of Thanjavur. These kingdoms built famous temples and spread Indian culture overseas.

Key points

• Harsha belonged to the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty of Thanesar. He became king in 606 CE and moved his capital to Kanauj.
• Our main sources: Banabhatta's Harshacharita and the travel account of Hiuen Tsang (Si-yu-ki).
• Harsha was defeated on the Narmada by Pulakeshin II of the Chalukyas. This is recorded in the Aihole inscription (written by Ravikirti).
• Harsha was a patron of Buddhism (Mahayana) and of Nalanda University. He held an assembly at Kanauj and a great distribution of gifts every five years at Prayag.
• Harsha himself wrote three Sanskrit plays: Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarshika.
• Chalukyas of Badami: Pulakeshin II was the greatest king. Chalukya temples at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal show early temple architecture.
• Pallavas of Kanchi: Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla). Narasimhavarman captured Vatapi and killed Pulakeshin II (c. 642 CE).
• Pallava art: rock-cut rathas and Shore Temple at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram); Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi.
• The long Chalukya–Pallava conflict shaped south Indian politics in the 7th century.
• Cholas (imperial Cholas from 9th century): Vijayalaya founded the line; Rajaraja I built the Brihadeshvara temple at Thanjavur; Rajendra I sent a naval expedition to South-East Asia and took the title "Gangaikonda".
• Chola village self-government is known from the Uttaramerur inscriptions; village assemblies (ur, sabha) managed local affairs.
• Temple style of the south is called Dravida, with tall gateways (gopurams) and pyramid-like towers (vimanas).

Important terms

• Harshacharita – Banabhatta's biography of Harsha.
• Ratha – monolithic rock-cut temple shaped like a chariot.
• Dravida style – south Indian temple style.
• Ur / Sabha – Chola village assemblies.
• Mahamandapa – large pillared hall of a temple.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who was Hiuen Tsang?

Hiuen Tsang was a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who came to India in Harsha's reign. He studied at Nalanda and wrote an account of India, which is an important source for Harsha's time.

Q2. What is the importance of the Aihole inscription?

It was composed by Ravikirti for Pulakeshin II. It records Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha and is also an example of fine Sanskrit poetry.

Q3. Describe the achievements of Harshavardhana.

• United north India after the Guptas.
• Capital at Kanauj.
• Patron of Buddhism and Nalanda.
• Assemblies at Kanauj and Prayag.
• Writer of three Sanskrit plays.
• Failure: defeat by Pulakeshin II limited him to the north.

Q4. Write a note on Pallava art and architecture.

• Rock-cut cave temples of Mahendravarman.
• Monolithic rathas at Mamallapuram (Narasimhavarman).
• Shore Temple and Kailasanatha temple (Rajasimha).
• Large rock relief "Descent of the Ganga / Arjuna's Penance".
• Laid foundation of the Dravida style.

Q5. Describe the Chola administration with special reference to local self-government.

• King at the top, helped by ministers.
• Empire divided into mandalams, valanadus, nadus and villages.
• Village assemblies: ur (common villages), sabha (Brahmana villages).
• Uttaramerur inscriptions describe election by lot (kudavolai) and committees (variyams).
• Assemblies managed tanks, temples, roads and taxes.

Exam tip

Always link a ruler with his monument (Rajaraja – Brihadeshvara; Narasimhavarman – Mamallapuram). One correct example earns quick marks.

Quick summary

From the 8th to the 12th century much of north and west India was ruled by Rajput clans. Historians debate their origin. The most powerful early Rajput dynasty was the Gurjara-Pratiharas, who also resisted the Arabs, and the most famous later one was the Chahamanas (Chauhans) of Ajmer under Prithviraj III. Other clans included the Paramaras, Solankis and Chandelas.

Key points

• Theories of origin:

1. Agnikula theory – Chand Bardai's Prithviraj Raso says four clans (Pratihara, Chalukya/Solanki, Paramara, Chahamana) were born from a sacred fire at Mount Abu.
2. Foreign origin – Colonel James Tod and V. A. Smith linked them with Hunas, Gurjaras and other Central Asian groups who were absorbed into Indian society.
3. Indigenous Kshatriya origin – C. V. Vaidya and G. H. Ojha held that Rajputs descended from ancient Kshatriyas.
4. Most historians now see them as a mixed group of old Kshatriya families, local chiefs and absorbed newcomers who rose to power through land and warfare.

• Gurjara-Pratiharas: Nagabhata I (8th century) stopped Arab advances from Sind. Nagabhata II captured Kanauj (c. 816). Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885), called Adivaraha, was the greatest; Arab merchant Sulaiman praised his cavalry and his hostility to the Arabs. Poet Rajashekhara lived at Mahendrapala's court.
• Chahamanas (Chauhans) of Shakambhari (Sambhar) and Ajmer: Ajayaraja founded Ajmer (Ajayameru) in the early 12th century. Vigraharaja IV (Visaladeva) took Delhi from the Tomaras and wrote the play Harikeli Nataka.
• Prithviraj III (Prithviraj Chauhan) defeated Muhammad Ghori at the First Battle of Tarain (1191) but lost the Second Battle of Tarain (1192), which opened north India to Turkish rule.
• Paramaras of Malwa (capital Dhar): Raja Bhoja, a great scholar-king. Solankis (Chalukyas) of Gujarat: Dilwara temple at Mount Abu (Vimala Vasahi). Chandelas of Bundelkhand built Khajuraho.
• Rajput polity: clan-based, feudal; chiefs held land in return for military service. Strong ideals of honour and courage, but constant mutual wars weakened them.

Important terms

• Agnikula – "fire-born" clans in the bardic legend.
• Samanta – a feudal chief serving an overlord.
• Kanauj – the prize city of north India in this period.
• Adivaraha – title of Mihira Bhoja, a form of Vishnu.

Important dates and people

• c. 816 – Nagabhata II takes Kanauj.
• c. 836–885 – Mihira Bhoja.
• 1191 – First Battle of Tarain (Prithviraj wins).
• 1192 – Second Battle of Tarain (Muhammad Ghori wins).
• Chand Bardai – court poet, Prithviraj Raso.

5 important questions

Q1. What is the Agnikula theory?

A bardic legend in Prithviraj Raso that the Pratihara, Chalukya, Paramara and Chahamana clans were born from a sacrificial fire on Mount Abu.

Q2. Who won the Second Battle of Tarain?

Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192.

Q3. Discuss the theories of the origin of the Rajputs.

• Agnikula legend.
• Foreign origin (Tod, Smith).
• Indigenous Kshatriya (Vaidya, Ojha).
• Mixed origin – modern view.
• Conclusion.

Q4. Write an account of the Gurjara-Pratiharas.

• Nagabhata I and the Arabs.
• Kanauj and the tripartite struggle.
• Mihira Bhoja, Mahendrapala.
• Culture and decline.

Q5. Describe the achievements of the Chahamanas of Ajmer.

• Ajayaraja and Ajmer.
• Vigraharaja IV: Delhi, literature.
• Prithviraj III: Tarain battles.
• Causes of Rajput defeat.

Exam tip

For origin questions, give each theory with its scholar's name, then end with the modern "mixed origin" view.

Quick summary

From about 750 to 950 CE three powers fought for control of Kanauj, the old imperial city of Harsha: the Palas of Bengal, the Gurjara-Pratiharas of western India and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. This long contest is called the Tripartite Struggle. It brought glory to each power for a time but exhausted all three.

Key points

• Why Kanauj? It was Harsha's capital, a symbol of supremacy over north India; it controlled the fertile Ganga–Yamuna doab and trade routes.
• Palas: Gopala (c. 750) was chosen by nobles to end anarchy (matsyanyaya). Dharmapala put his nominee Chakrayudha on the Kanauj throne and founded Vikramashila university. Devapala extended Pala power. The Palas were great patrons of Buddhism (Nalanda, Vikramashila, Odantapuri).
• Pratiharas: Vatsaraja fought both rivals; Nagabhata II defeated Chakrayudha and took Kanauj (c. 816); Mihira Bhoja made it his capital and held it firmly.
• Rashtrakutas: Dantidurga (c. 753) overthrew the Chalukyas of Badami. Krishna I built the rock-cut Kailasa temple at Ellora. Dhruva and Govinda III raided the north and defeated both Palas and Pratiharas but did not stay. Amoghavarsha I ruled from Manyakheta (Malkhed) and is credited with the Kannada work Kavirajamarga. Indra III sacked Kanauj (c. 916). Krishna III defeated the Cholas at Takkolam (949).
• The Rashtrakutas had roots in the Deccan; their power centred on present-day Maharashtra and Karnataka.
• Phases: 1) Vatsaraja–Dharmapala–Dhruva clash; 2) Nagabhata II–Dharmapala–Govinda III; 3) Pratihara control under Bhoja; 4) Rashtrakuta raids under Indra III.
• Result: the Pratiharas held Kanauj longest, but all three were weakened. This helped new regional powers rise and left north India open to the attacks of Mahmud of Ghazni.
• Arab writers called the Rashtrakuta king Balhara (from Vallabharaja) and described his kingdom as one of the great powers of the world.

Important terms

• Matsyanyaya – "law of the fishes"; anarchy where the strong eat the weak.
• Tripartite Struggle – the three-way contest for Kanauj.
• Manyakheta – Rashtrakuta capital (Malkhed, Karnataka).
• Vikramashila – Buddhist university founded by Dharmapala.

Important dates and people

• c. 750 – Gopala becomes Pala king.
• c. 753 – Dantidurga founds Rashtrakuta power.
• c. 816 – Nagabhata II captures Kanauj.
• c. 916 – Indra III sacks Kanauj.
• 949 – Battle of Takkolam.

5 important questions

Q1. Who built the Kailasa temple at Ellora?

The Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (8th century CE).

Q2. What does matsyanyaya mean?

"The law of the fishes" – a state of anarchy in which the strong destroy the weak. It describes Bengal before Gopala.

Q3. Explain the causes of the Tripartite Struggle.

• Prestige of Kanauj.
• Economic value of the doab.
• Ambition of the three dynasties.
• No single strong power after Harsha.

Q4. Describe the course and results of the Tripartite Struggle.

• Three or four phases with kings.
• Pratihara success.
• Exhaustion of all three; opening for the Turks.

Q5. Write a note on the Rashtrakutas.

• Dantidurga, Krishna I, Dhruva, Govinda III.
• Amoghavarsha I and literature.
• Ellora, Arab accounts.
• Decline (c. 973).

Exam tip

Draw a three-column chart (Pala / Pratihara / Rashtrakuta) with the kings who clashed in each phase. It makes a confusing topic clear.

Quick summary

The early medieval period (c. 600–1200 CE) saw big changes in Indian society and culture. Land grants created a feudal order, castes multiplied, and Puranic Hinduism with temple worship and bhakti grew strong while Buddhism declined. This age also produced India's great temple styles: Nagara in the north, Dravida in the south and Vesara in the Deccan.

Key points

• Feudalism: kings gave land grants (agrahara, brahmadeya) to Brahmins, temples and officials. Local samantas gained power. Historian R. S. Sharma called this "Indian feudalism"; others see it as state formation in new regions.
• Society: many new jatis formed; Rajputs rose as a warrior group; the status of women declined (early marriage, fewer rights), though royal women like the Kakatiya Rudramadevi (13th century) show exceptions.
• Religion: Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shakti worship spread; Tantra grew in Buddhism (Vajrayana) and Hinduism. Buddhism declined in most regions except Bengal–Bihar under the Palas. Jainism remained strong in Karnataka and Gujarat.
• Adi Shankaracharya (traditionally 788–820 CE) taught Advaita Vedanta and set up four mathas (Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri, Jyotirmath).
• Bhakti in the south: the 12 Vaishnava Alvars and the 63 Shaiva Nayanars (6th–9th centuries) sang devotional hymns in Tamil, open to all castes and women (e.g. Andal).
• Regional languages grew: Kannada (Kavirajamarga), Telugu, Tamil; the earliest Marathi inscriptions appear in this period.
• Nagara style: curved tower (shikhara) over the sanctum. Examples: Kandariya Mahadeva, Khajuraho (Chandela); Lingaraja, Bhubaneswar; Sun Temple, Konark (13th century).
• Dravida style: pyramid-shaped tower (vimana), large gateways (gopurams) and enclosure walls. Example: Brihadeeswara temple, Thanjavur (Rajaraja I, c. 1010).
• Vesara style: a mix of both, seen in the Deccan – Chalukya temples at Pattadakal, later Hoysala temples.
• Rock-cut architecture: Kailasa temple, Ellora (Rashtrakuta) is carved from a single rock. In Maharashtra, the Ambarnath Shiva temple (1060 CE, Shilaharas) is a fine example of the Bhumija style.

Important terms

• Agrahara – a village granted to Brahmins.
• Samanta – a feudal chief.
• Shikhara / Vimana – north / south Indian temple tower.
• Gopuram – monumental gateway of a south Indian temple.
• Advaita – non-dualism: Brahman and Atman are one.

Important dates and people

• 6th–9th centuries – Alvars and Nayanars.
• 788–820 CE – Shankaracharya (traditional dates).
• c. 1010 – Brihadeeswara temple, Thanjavur.
• c. 1030 – Kandariya Mahadeva, Khajuraho (approx.).
• 1060 – Ambarnath temple.

5 important questions

Q1. Who were the Alvars and Nayanars?

Tamil devotional saints: the Alvars worshipped Vishnu and the Nayanars worshipped Shiva. Their hymns started the bhakti movement in the south.

Q2. Name the three styles of Indian temple architecture.

Nagara (north), Dravida (south) and Vesara (Deccan, mixed).

Q3. Describe social conditions in early medieval India.

• Feudal land grants and samantas.
• Growth of castes and the Rajputs.
• Position of women.
• Village economy.

Q4. Explain the religious developments of the early medieval period.

• Puranic Hinduism and temples.
• Tantra; decline of Buddhism.
• Shankaracharya.
• Alvars and Nayanars.

Q5. Compare the Nagara and Dravida styles of temple architecture with examples.

• Plan and tower shape.
• Gopuram and enclosure in Dravida.
• Examples from Khajuraho, Bhubaneswar, Thanjavur.
• Vesara as a mixed style.
• A labelled table works well.

Exam tip

In temple questions, write one named temple for each style with its builder dynasty. A small comparison table impresses examiners.