इतिहास व राज्यशास्त्र History and Political Science

Quick summary

Historiography means writing a critical, evidence-based account of the past. This chapter explains how the method of historical research works, how modern historiography developed in Europe, and the ideas of important Western scholars like Descartes, Voltaire, Hegel, Ranke, Marx and Foucault. It also introduces the Annales School and feminist historiography.

Key points

• History cannot use laboratory experiments, because past events cannot be recreated. So historians critically examine sources and their references.
• Historical research method: ask relevant questions → form hypotheses → critically examine sources → understand time and space references → write the historical narrative.
• Other subjects help history: archaeology, epigraphy (study of inscriptions), numismatics (study of coins), genealogy (study of lineage), linguistics, manuscriptology, archival science.
• Recording of historical events goes back to the Sumer civilisation of Mesopotamia. The earliest inscription (about 4500 B.C.E.) records a battle and is in the Louvre museum, France.
• Four features of modern historiography: (1) scientific method starting with questions, (2) questions are anthropocentric (about human deeds, not divine), (3) answers are backed by reliable evidence, (4) it presents mankind's journey through past human deeds.
• The word "history" is Greek. Herodotus first used it for his book "The Histories".
• Gottingen University (Germany, 1737 C.E.) was the first to have an independent department of history.
• Annales School (France, early 20th century) said history is also about climate, local people, agriculture, trade, technology and social life, not only kings and wars.
• Feminist historiography rewrites history from women's point of view; Simone de Beauvoir's writings laid its foundation.

Important terms

• Historiography – writing of a critical historical narrative.
• Anthropocentric – centred on human beings and their deeds.
• Dialectics – Hegel's method of understanding through opposites: thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
• Class struggle – Marx's idea that conflict between classes drives history.
• Archaeology of knowledge – Foucault's method of explaining transitions in the past.

Important dates and people

5 important questions

Q1. Who is called the founder of modern historiography and why?

Voltaire. He said that, along with objective truth and chronology, social traditions, trade, economy and agriculture must also be studied. This led to the idea that all aspects of human life matter in writing history.

Q2. What are the four characteristics of modern historiography?

(1) It follows a scientific method that begins with relevant questions. (2) The questions are anthropocentric. (3) The answers are supported by reliable evidence. (4) It presents a graph of mankind's journey based on past human deeds.

Q3. Explain Karl Marx's class theory.

Marx said history is about living people. Their relations depend on basic needs and on who owns the means of production. Unequal access to these means divides society into classes, and the owning class exploits others. So human history is the history of class struggle.

Q4. Write a short note on the Annales School.

It started in France in the early 20th century. It said history should include climate, local people, agriculture, trade, technology, means of communication, social divisions and collective psychology, not just politics and wars.

Q5. Why did Foucault call his method "the archaeology of knowledge"?

Foucault felt that arranging events only in chronological order is not right. Like archaeology, his method does not aim at an ultimate truth but tries to explain the various transitions in the past.

Exam tip

Make a scholar–book–idea table and revise it; "wrong pair" and "complete the concept chart" questions come straight from it.

Quick summary

This chapter traces how history was recorded and written in India — from oral traditions, inscriptions and royal biographies in ancient times, through court histories and bakhars in the medieval period, to the writings of British officers and Indian historians in modern times. It then explains the main ideological schools: colonial, orientalist, nationalistic, Marxist, subaltern and feminist.

Key points

• In ancient India, memories of ancestors and social changes were kept alive through oral recitals.
• Harappan seals show Indians knew writing by the third millennium B.C.E., but the Harappan script is not yet deciphered.
• The earliest historical written records are Emperor Ashok's edicts (3rd century B.C.E.) on rocks and pillars. Later inscriptions appear on coins, sculptures and copper plates.
• Banabhatta's "Harshacharit" (7th century C.E.) is a biography of King Harsha.
• Kalhana's "Rajatarangini" (12th century C.E., history of Kashmir) is close to modern historiography because he examined inscriptions, coins, monuments and records.
• Ziauddin Barani ("Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi") said a historian must also write about a ruler's failures, not only his valour.
• Abul Fazl's "Akbarnama" is valued for collecting and checking documents without bias.
• Bakhars are Marathi historical narratives. "Sabhasad Bakhar" (by Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad) gives information about Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's rule; "Bhausahebanchi Bakhar" describes the Battle of Panipat.
• Sir Alexander Cunningham was the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India; the Harappan civilisation was discovered during Sir John Marshall's tenure.
• British writers like James Mill and Grant Duff showed prejudice against Indian culture.
• Post-independence history was shaped by three schools: Marxist, Subaltern and Feminist.

Important terms

• Bakhar – Marathi prose narrative of heroes, battles and events.
• Colonial historiography – history written by British officers and missionaries, often to justify British rule.
• Orientalists – European scholars who studied and admired Eastern cultures and Sanskrit.
• Nationalistic historiography – Indian writing that aimed to restore pride in India's past.
• Subaltern – the bottommost ranks of society; subaltern history is written from their point of view.

Important dates and people

• 1784 – Sir William Jones founded the Asiatic Society in Kolkata.
• 1817 – James Mill's "The History of British India" (3 volumes).
• 1882 – Tarabai Shinde's "Stripurush Tulana", the first feminist book in India.
• 1888 – Pandita Ramabai's "The High Caste Hindu Woman".
• 7 July 1910 – V. K. Rajwade founded Bharat Itihas Samshodhak Mandal, Pune.
• Friedrich Max Muller – edited "The Sacred Books of the East" (50 volumes); translated the Rigveda into German.
• V. K. Rajwade – edited 22 volumes of "Marathyanchya Itihasachi Sadhane".
• Justice M. G. Ranade – "The Rise of Maratha Power".
• V. D. Savarkar – "The Indian War of Independence, 1857".
• Marxist historians – D. D. Kosambi, S. A. Dange, R. S. Sharma, Sharad Patil.
• Subaltern – Antonio Gramsci (idea), Ranajit Guha (school); earlier, Mahatma Phule ("Gulamgiri") and Dr Ambedkar ("Who Were the Shudras", "The Untouchables").

5 important questions

Q1. Why is Kalhana's "Rajatarangini" considered close to modern historiography?

Kalhana says he wrote it after critically examining many sources — inscriptions, coins, remains of monuments, dynastic records and local traditions. Such checking of sources is the basis of modern historiography.

Q2. What was Ziauddin Barani's view of a historian's duty?

A historian should record not only a ruler's valour and welfare policies but also his failings and wrong policies. He should also note the influence of saints and learned people on cultural life. This widened the scope of history.

Q3. Write a short note on nationalistic historiography.

Indian historians trained in British education wrote to restore pride in India's ancient glory. In Maharashtra it was inspired by Vishnushastri Chiplunkar. Ranade, Bhandarkar, Savarkar and Rajwade were among them. It helped the freedom movement but is sometimes blamed for ignoring critical analysis.

Q4. What is subaltern history?

History written from the point of view of the lowest ranks of society. Gramsci developed the idea and Ranajit Guha established it in India. Folklore is an important source. Mahatma Phule and Dr Ambedkar had expressed similar thoughts much earlier.

Q5. What was the contribution of feminist historians?

They showed that women's role in history had been neglected, compiled women's writings and rethought women's position. Examples: Tarabai Shinde, Pandita Ramabai, Meera Kosambi and Sharmila Rege.

Exam tip

Learn the book–author pairs and the six schools with one example each; they are asked as "match the pairs" and "short notes".

Quick summary

Applied History, also called Public History, means using the knowledge of history for the benefit of people today and in the future. This chapter shows how the method of history helps research in many fields, how it links us to our present, how cultural and natural heritage is managed, and which professions are connected to it.

Key points

• Applied history helps find solutions to present social issues and supports social planning.
• Common people can take part as tourists visiting museums and sites, and as volunteers in conservation projects.
• The history of each field (philosophy, science, technology, industry and commerce, management, arts, humanities) helps research in that field.
• History of science shows the order and causes of discoveries; "need is the mother of invention".
• History of technology explains changes in agriculture, production and architecture, and how science and technology depend on each other.
• All humanities disciplines are believed to have their origin in philosophy.
• Heritage is of two kinds: cultural heritage (made by humans) and natural heritage (based on biodiversity).
• Cultural heritage is tangible (sites, buildings, sculptures, manuscripts, paintings) or intangible (oral traditions, festivals, performing arts, traditional skills).
• Natural heritage includes fauna, flora and the ecology and landforms that support them.
• UNESCO declares World Heritage sites and traditions. The Western Ghats (including Kaas plateau, Satara) are on the World Natural Heritage list.
• Conservation in India is done by the Archaeological Survey of India, state archaeology departments and INTACH.
• Applied history creates jobs: architects, engineers, historians, archaeologists, museum curators, archive experts, legal experts, photographers.

Important terms

• Applied (Public) History – using history to benefit people now and in the future.
• Tangible heritage – heritage we can touch, like forts, temples, sculptures.
• Intangible heritage – heritage like songs, dances, customs and skills.
• Archives – places that preserve old documents, records and films.
• INTACH – Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage.

Important dates and people

• Earliest museum (6th century B.C.E.) – found at Ur, Mesopotamia; built and run by princess Ennigaldi; excavated by Sir Leonard Woolley (1922–1934).
• 1814 – Indian Museum, Kolkata, founded by the Asiatic Society; Nathaniel Wallich was its first curator.
• 1964 – National Film Archives of India set up; main office in Pune.
• National Archives of India – New Delhi.
• Indian World Heritage examples: Ajanta and Verul (Ellora) caves (1983), Gharapuri/Elephanta caves (1987), CSMT Mumbai (2004), Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (2003), Yoga as intangible heritage (2016); the Western Ghats are on the natural heritage list.

5 important questions

Q1. What is applied history?

It is a field of study that applies history for the benefit of people in the present and future. It helps solve contemporary social issues, preserves heritage, creates awareness and opens job opportunities. It is also called Public History.

Q2. Why is it essential to study the history of technology?

It explains how and why agriculture, production, architecture and engineering changed over time. It shows how science and technology depend on each other, from stone tools to mechanised production.

Q3. Why does UNESCO announce the list of World Heritage Sites?

To preserve important cultural and natural heritage for future generations. UNESCO issued directives to promote heritage, and on that basis it declares sites and traditions as World Heritage.

Q4. Write a short note on archives.

Archives preserve and store old documents, official records and old films. The National Archives of India is in New Delhi, and every state has its own archives. The National Film Archives of India (Pune, 1964) preserves rare Indian films and documents them.

Q5. What objectives can be fulfilled through heritage projects?

Conservation without changing the original state of the site; understanding the needs of local people; respecting local sentiments; involving local people; and using local skills to create livelihood.

Exam tip

Learn the tangible/intangible/natural heritage chart with two examples each, and a few UNESCO sites from Maharashtra — they are easy marks in concept-map questions.

Quick summary

Art is the beautiful expression of a person's experience, imagination and feelings. This chapter explains visual and performing arts, folk and classical traditions, Indian styles of painting, sculpture and architecture (temples, caves, Islamic and Indo-Gothic buildings), Indian music and dance, and job opportunities in art and applied art.

Key points

• Arts are of two types: visual arts (Drik Kala) like painting and sculpture, and performing arts (Lalit or Aangik Kala) like music, dance and theatre.
• Folk art is spontaneous and made by collective participation; classical art follows fixed rules and needs long training.
• Rock paintings at Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) are a World Heritage site. They used black, red and white natural colours.
• Warli painting and Chitrakathi (Pinguli) are folk painting traditions of Maharashtra. Jivya Somya Mashe made Warli famous and got the Padmashree in 2011.
• Ancient texts mention 64 arts. Painting has six aspects (Shadange): Roopbheda, Pramana, Bhava, Lavanyayojana, Sadrushyata, Varnikabhang.
• Murals in the Maratha style can be seen in old wadas at Wai, Menavali and Satara; this style was influenced by Rajput and European painting.
• The Kailas temple at Verul is a monolithic sculpture carved from a single rock. The lion capital of Sarnath is India's national emblem.
• Gandhara school (2nd century B.C.E.) had Greek and Persian influence; Mathura school (Kushana period, 1st–3rd century C.E.) laid the foundation of Indian iconography. Chola kings promoted bronze images.
• Temple styles: Nagara (North), Dravida (South), Vesara (a blend), Bhoomija (Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra).
• Hemadpanti temples (12th–13th century, Maharashtra) have star-shaped plans and walls built without mortar using tenon-and-mortise joints, e.g. Ambreshwar (Ambarnath), Gondeshwar (Sinnar), Aundha Nagnath (Hingoli).
• Islamic architecture: Qutub Minar (73 m, tallest minaret), Taj Mahal, Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur). CSMT Mumbai is Indo-Gothic.
• Indian classical music has two branches: Hindustani and Carnatic.

Important terms

• Iconography – knowledge of making images of gods and goddesses.
• Monolithic – carved out of a single rock.
• Navarasa – the nine moods of Indian performing arts (Shringar, Hasya, Beebhatsa, Raudra, Karuna, Veer, Bhayanak, Adbhut, Shant).
• Applied art – art with a useful purpose, e.g. advertising, interior design, calligraphy.

Important dates and people

• Bharatmuni – "Natyashastra", earliest text on music and theatre.
• Ibrahim Adilshah II – "Kitab-e-Navras" (in Dakhani Urdu), on Indian classical music.
• James Wales – started an art school in Shaniwar Wada, Pune, under Savai Madhavrao Peshwe; Gangaram Tambat worked with him.
• 1983 – Ajanta and Verul caves declared World Heritage.
• Pandit Uday Shankar – fused Indian classical dance with European opera.
• National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad – famous design institute.

5 important questions

Q1. Distinguish between folk art and classical art.

Folk art has continued since prehistoric times, is a natural part of people's life, is spontaneous and is created by a group. Classical art follows an established set of rules and needs long training to master.

Q2. Write about the folk styles of painting.

Rock paintings from the stone age show humans, animals and geometric figures in black, red and white. Folk painting, like decorating walls and courtyards with rangoli, resembles rock painting. Warli and Chitrakathi of Maharashtra are fine examples.

Q3. Explain the characteristics of Hemadpanti temples.

Built in Maharashtra in the 12th–13th centuries. They have a star-shaped plan with zigzag outer walls that create light and shadow. Stones are locked with tenon-and-mortise joints without mortar. Example: Gondeshwar temple, Sinnar.

Q4. Explain the features of Islamic architecture in India with examples.

It blended Persian, Central Asian, Arabic and Indian styles under Muslim rulers. Examples: Qutub Minar near Delhi, Taj Mahal built by Shah Jahan at Agra, and Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur in Karnataka.

Q5. What professional opportunities are available in the field of arts?

Journalism on art, the art market (valuing and checking genuineness of art objects), heritage management, cultural tourism, museums and archives, library science, archaeological research, Indology, and applied arts like advertising, interior design and animation.

Exam tip

Prepare the temple-architecture table (Nagara, Dravida, Hemadpanti: features and examples) — it is a regular "complete the table" question.

Quick summary

Mass media are the means of communication that reach a large number of people at once — newspapers, magazines, radio, television and digital media. This chapter traces the history of mass media in India, explains why we need them, why their information must be checked critically, and how knowledge of history creates jobs in media.

Key points

• "Mass" means a large group of people and "media" means modes of communication.
• Before newspapers: royal decrees on inscriptions (Egypt, Emperor Asoka), "Acta Diurna" in Rome under Julius Caesar, criers beating drums in streets.
• Printing and newspapers came to India with the British. Newspapers were the first mass medium.
• Newspapers created social awareness: "Prabhakar" (Bhau Mahajan) published Lokhitvadi's "Shatpatre"; "Induprakash" supported widow remarriage; "Deenbandhu" (Krishnarao Bhalekar) spoke for the masses.
• "Dnyanoday" printed the first illustration in an Indian newspaper, maps of Asia (1842) and Europe (1851), and news of railways ("Chakya Mhasoba") and of 1857.
• Magazines and journals are periodicals (weekly, monthly, quarterly, etc.); many deal with history.
• Television is an audio-visual medium; it shows actual visuals of events, which newspapers and radio cannot.
• Mass media allow free flow of information and give readers a platform, which strengthens democracy. Newspapers are called the fourth pillar of democracy.
• Media information must be checked critically. Example: the forged "Hitler diaries" bought by the German magazine "Stern".
• Media need historians: background of news, columns like "50 Years Ago", supplements on anniversaries, radio programmes like "On This Day in History", historical TV serials.

Important terms

• Mass media – means of communication that reach many people at once.
• Periodical – a publication that comes out at regular intervals.
• Audio-visual medium – a medium we can both hear and see, like television.
• Digital journalism – news and content through web portals, social media, YouTube, etc.

Important dates and people

• 29 January 1780 – "Bengal Gazette" (Calcutta General Advertiser), India's first English newspaper, by James Augustus Hickey.
• 1832 – "Darpan", Mumbai, the first Marathi newspaper, edited by Balshastri Jambhekar ("First Editor"); his birthday 6 January is "Patrakar Din".
• Balshastri Jambhekar also started "Digdarshan", the first Marathi monthly magazine.
• 1881 – "Kesari" and "Maratha" started by Lokmanya Tilak and Gopal Ganesh Agarkar.
• 1929 – journal "Pragati" started by T. S. Shejwalkar.
• 23 July 1927 – first English news bulletin from the Mumbai station of IBC.
• 8 June 1936 – Indian State Broadcasting Service renamed All India Radio (later "Akashvani", name suggested by Pandit Narendra Sharma).
• 15 September 1959 – Delhi Doordarshan centre inaugurated by Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
• 1 May 1972 – Mumbai Doordarshan centre; 15 August 1982 – colour TV; 1991 – private channels allowed.
• "Bharat Ek Khoj" – serial based on Nehru's "Discovery of India", directed by Shyam Benegal.

5 important questions

Q1. Why do we need mass media?

For free flow of information to all sections of society. Editorials, columns and supplements inform people, and readers get a platform to express opinions. This helps make democracy stronger.

Q2. Why must information from mass media be reviewed critically?

Media news may not always be the exact truth. For example, "Stern" bought so-called handwritten diaries of Hitler, which were later proved forged. So we must check information carefully before believing it.

Q3. Write a note on "Dnyanoday".

It printed the first illustration in an Indian newspaper, maps of Asia (1842) and Europe (1851), news of the telegraph, the start of railways as "Chakya Mhasoba", and the 1857 war of independence.

Q4. Write about the role of newspapers in the freedom struggle.

Newspapers like "Kesari" and "Maratha" (1881) discussed social and political issues and spread national awareness. "Darpan", "Prabhakar" and "Deenbandhu" spread reform ideas. They helped people unite against British rule.

Q5. What professional opportunities does mass media offer to students of history?

Writing background of news and columns like "100 Years Ago", preparing anniversary supplements, planning radio talks and "On This Day in History", and research for historical TV serials and channels where accuracy of costumes, weapons and language is needed.

Exam tip

Revise the newspaper–founder pairs (Darpan–Jambhekar, Kesari–Tilak, Deenbandhu–Bhalekar, Bengal Gazette–Hickey); they are asked as "wrong pair" questions.

Quick summary

Entertainment refreshes the mind and keeps us happy and energetic. This chapter explains why we need entertainment, describes Maharashtra's folk theatre forms (puppetry, Dashavatara, Bhajan, Keertan, Lalit, Bharud, Tamasha, Powada), the growth of Marathi theatre, the beginnings of the Indian film industry, and the career opportunities these fields offer to students of history.

Key points

• Entertainment is active (we take part, e.g. sports, handicrafts) or passive (we only watch or listen, e.g. a match or a movie).
• Healthy entertainment helps personality development and improves work efficiency.
• Kathputali (puppetry) has two styles — Rajasthan and southern India. The narrator is called the sutradhara.
• Dashavatara: folk theatre of Konkan and Goa based on the 10 incarnations of Vishnu; it ends with breaking the dahihandi. Marathi theatre has its roots in it.
• Bhajan: Chakri and Songi types; Tukadoji Maharaj started Khanjiri Bhajan.
• Keertan: Naradmuni is regarded as its founder; Saint Namdev was the first keertankar of Maharashtra. Two traditions: Naradiya (Haridasi) and Varkari. Rashtriya Keertan was started by Dattopant Patwardhan of Wai.
• Bharud: metaphorical songs with spiritual and moral lessons; Saint Eknath's Bharuds are most popular.
• Tamasha (Persian word for "pleasing sight") grew in the 18th century; types: Sangeet Bari and Dholakicha Phad. It starts with the Gana, then Gavalan, then the Vag.
• Powada: ballad of heroic deeds, e.g. Adnyandas's Powada on the killing of Afzal Khan.
• Maharashtra made the first full-length Indian movie, so it is called the land that nurtured the Indian film industry.

Important terms

• Sutradhara – the narrator in puppetry and Dashavatara.
• Phad – a troupe.
• Vag – the dramatic, humorous part of Tamasha.
• Powada – a ballad that mixes poetry and prose to tell heroic stories.
• Bharud – a metaphorical devotional song with a moral lesson.

Important dates and people

• Vishnudas Bhave – father of Marathi theatre; first play "Seetaswayamvar".
• 1861 – V. J. Kirtane wrote the first full written script, "Thorale Madhavrao Peshwe".
• Annasaheb Kirloskar – "Sangeet Shakuntal"; G. B. Deval – "Sharada"; K. P. Khadilkar – "Keechakvadh" (Keechak stood for Lord Curzon) and "Sangeet Manapaman"; Ram Ganesh Gadkari – "Ekach Pyala".
• Kusumagraj – "Natasamrat", styled after Shakespeare's "King Lear".
• 1912 – "Pundalik" by Dadasaheb Torane released in Mumbai.
• 1913 – "Raja Harishchandra" by Dadasaheb Phalke, the first movie processed fully in India.
• 1918 – Baburao Painter made "Sairandhri"; he also made the first historical (silent) movie "Simhgarh".
• 1925 – Bhalaji Pendharkar's "Bajirao-Mastani", banned by the British.
• Kamalabai Mangarulkar – first woman producer. "Sant Tukaram" was shown at an international film festival in Paris.

5 important questions

Q1. Why is Maharashtra known as the land that nurtured the Indian film industry?

The first full-length movie was made and released in Maharashtra. Pioneers like Dadasaheb Torane ("Pundalik", 1912), Dadasaheb Phalke ("Raja Harishchandra", 1913) and Baburao Painter worked here, and studios like Prabhat Company grew here.

Q2. What is Powada?

A Powada is a dramatic narration of heroic deeds, alternating poetry and prose in a forceful, inspiring style. Examples: Adnyandas's Powada on Afzal Khan's killing and Tulsidas's on the battle of Sinhagad. Powadas spread awareness during the Samyukta Maharashtra movement.

Q3. Why are Saint Eknath's Bharuds popular in Maharashtra?

Because of their wide range of subjects, dramatic quality, easy rhythm and humour. He composed them to educate people about different aspects of life.

Q4. Why is expertise in history important in the film industry?

Art directors must design sets, costumes, jewellery and make-up suited to the period. Dialogue writers need knowledge of the language and culture of that time. Historians can work as art directors or consultants.

Q5. Write a short note on the need for entertainment.

Entertainment keeps our mind fresh and body energetic, improves efficiency at work and helps personality development. Since ancient times India developed festivals, sports, dance and music for this purpose.

Exam tip

Make a chart of Bhajan, Keertan, Lalit and Bharud with one feature and one example each, and learn the play–playwright pairs.

Quick summary

Sports combine entertainment with physical exercise, and playing is a natural human instinct, so the history of sports is as old as mankind. This chapter covers the importance and types of sports, the effect of globalisation, the history of toys, literature and movies on sport, and careers in sports for students of history.

Key points

• Ancient Indian literature and epics mention dice (dyut), wrestling, horse and chariot races and chess.
• The Greeks were the first to standardise sports rules. The ancient Olympics were held at Olympia, Greece.
• Sports relax the mind, build a strong body, and develop courage, determination, sportsmanship, team spirit and leadership.
• Indoor games: chess, cards, carom, Kachkavadya/Chaukabara (Indian ludo), Sagargote, Bhatukali.
• Outdoor games are Indian (Langadi, Kabaddi, Atyapatya, Kho-kho, Vitti-Dandu, Lagori) or international (badminton, table tennis, hockey, cricket, football, golf, polo).
• Mallakhamb was devised by Balambhat Deodhar, physical trainer of Peshwa Bajirao II, inspired by monkeys playing on trees.
• Hockey is India's national game.
• Globalisation: matches are watched worldwide on TV, companies advertise during matches, and retired players become commentators — this has changed the sports economy.
• Clay toys are found in excavations. Shudraka's Sanskrit play "Mrichchhakatika" means "a clay cart". Kathasaritsagara describes flying and dancing dolls.
• Wooden dolls of Maharashtra are called Thaki. Model forts made at Diwali keep alive the memory of forts in Maharashtra's history.
• An Indian ivory doll (1st century C.E.) found at Pompeii, Italy, shows Indo-Roman trade.

Important terms

• Indoor games – games played in a closed space, often sitting at one place.
• Outdoor games – games played in open grounds.
• Adventurous games – rock-climbing, gliding, skiing, auto racing, etc.
• Globalisation of sports – sports reaching and influencing the whole world through media and business.

Important dates and people

• Major Dhyan Chand – "Wizard of Hockey"; captain of India's Olympic gold team at Berlin, 1936 (also gold in 1928 and 1932); Padmabhushan 1956; his birthday 29 August is National Sports Day.
• Bal J. Pandit – first Indian cricketer to pioneer cricket commentary (on Akashvani).
• Mary Kom – first Indian woman boxer to win an Olympic medal (bronze).
• "Dangal" – movie on the Phogat sisters, wrestlers.
• Khashaba Jadhav and Maruti Mane – famous wrestlers; Sachin Tendulkar – Bharatratna cricketer.

5 important questions

Q1. Explain the difference between indoor and outdoor games.

Indoor games are played in a closed space, many while sitting, e.g. chess, carom, cards. Outdoor games are played in open grounds and need physical activity; they include Indian games like kabaddi and kho-kho and international games like cricket and football.

Q2. Why has the structure of the sports economy been significantly affected?

Due to globalisation, matches are telecast worldwide. Fans watch for entertainment, companies use matches to advertise, and retired players get work as commentators. So a lot of money now flows through sports.

Q3. How can toys tell us about cultural history?

Toys show technology and religious and cultural traditions. Model forts made at Diwali keep the memory of Maharashtra's forts alive. The Indian ivory doll found at Pompeii shows Indo-Roman trade relations.

Q4. Explain the close tie between sports and history.

Sports journalists need history to write about events like the Olympics. Commentators need knowledge of records and anecdotes. Movies on sport need study of the period. Encyclopaedias and sports magazines also need history of sports.

Q5. Write a note on sports and movies.

Movies like "Mary Kom" and "Dangal" show players' lives and struggles. Making them needs deep study of the language, dress and social life of that period, which students of history are trained to do.

Exam tip

Remember the Dhyan Chand facts (1936 Berlin, 29 August) and the "wrong pair" trap: chess is an indoor game.

Quick summary

Tourism means travelling to visit places in distant regions for a specific purpose. This chapter describes the tradition of travel in India and the world, the many types of tourism, what is needed to develop tourism, how heritage sites must be conserved, and the job opportunities in the tourism and hospitality industry, especially in Maharashtra.

Key points

• Indians travelled since ancient times for pilgrimage, fairs, education and trade. Buddhist and Jain monks kept travelling.
• Thomas Cook (19th century) organised a railway trip from Leicester to Loughborough for about 600 people and later set up a travel agency — the start of modern tourism.
• Types of tourism: local and interstate, international, historical, religious, geographic, health, agro, sports and special-event tourism.
• Historical tourism example: writer Gopal Neelkanth Dandekar arranged hikes to forts linked to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.
• Ahilyabai Holkar used her personal funds to build amenities on pilgrim routes (Chardham, Bara Jyotirlingas).
• Geographic tourism examples: Valley of Flowers (Uttarakhand), Lonar crater lake, ranjankhalage (rock cavities) at Nighoj.
• India attracts health tourists because of cheaper good-quality medical care, sunlight, yoga and Ayurveda.
• Developing tourism needs safe transport, security, good stay, clean washrooms, care for handicapped tourists, guidebooks in many languages and trained guides.
• Heritage must not be defaced by writing on walls or painting monuments in garish colours.
• Heritage walks (well-known in Ahmedabad, regular in Mumbai and Pune) build interest in conservation; "blue plaques" mark homes of famous citizens.
• Tourism creates jobs and helps local handicrafts, cottage industries and food businesses.

Important terms

• Tourism – travelling to distant places for a specific purpose.
• Agro-tourism – tourism to experience rural life and farming.
• Heritage walk – an organised tour of historical places.
• Hospitality industry – hotels, food and services for travellers.

Important dates and people

• 630 C.E. – Chinese monk Yuan Shwang (Xuanzang) travelled to India.
• 1159–1173 C.E. – Benjamin of Tudela (Spain), the first European traveller, travelled up to India and China.
• 13th century – Marco Polo (Italy) introduced China and Asia to Europe; stayed in China for 17 years.
• 14th century – Ibn Batuta travelled for 30 years and never used the same route twice.
• 16th century – Gerardus Mercator, cartographer, made a world map and globe.
• Vishnubhat Godse – "Maza Pravas", eyewitness account of 1857.
• 1975 – Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation (MTDC) set up.

5 important questions

Q1. What is the contribution of Thomas Cook to tourism?

He organised a railway trip from Leicester to Loughborough for about 600 people, then a round trip of Europe, and set up a travel agency selling tourist tickets. This opened the door for modern tourism.

Q2. Why is "Maza Pravas" an important source of history?

Vishnubhat Godse wrote it about his journey from Maharashtra to Ayodhya during the 1857 war. He was an eyewitness and described events, especially the life of Rani Lakshmibai. It also shows the Marathi language of that time.

Q3. Why do many foreign tourists come to India for health tourism?

Medical services in India are cheaper but of good standard. India has sunlight throughout the year, which attracts people from cold countries. Yoga training and Ayurvedic therapies are also available.

Q4. What precautions should be taken to preserve heritage sites?

Do not write on walls, carve on trees or paint monuments in garish colours. Keep the sites clean. Provide good amenities nearby so that the area does not become dirty.

Q5. How does tourism help the local economy?

Tourists spend on visas, travel, hotels, food, guides and souvenirs. Markets develop near tourist places, so local handicrafts, cottage industries and food items are in demand, which raises the income of local people.

Exam tip

Learn the travellers with their century and one fact each — they appear in "choose the correct option" and "wrong pair" questions.

Quick summary

Our sources of history and history books are the result of the hard work of many historians, and institutions like museums, libraries and archives conserve and preserve this heritage. This chapter explains how oral, written and material sources are collected and conserved, describes famous museums, libraries and archives in the world and India, and explains encyclopaedias and their types.

Key points

• Museums, libraries and archives exhibit important items, store others safely for researchers, and publish journals, pamphlets and posters.
• Only trained and qualified persons should handle conservation and preservation.
• Oral sources: collecting folk songs and folk tales; needs training in sociology, anthropology, linguistics, etc.
• Written sources: coins and copper plates with inscriptions, records, letters, diaries, manuscripts; needs knowledge of scripts like Brahmi, Modi and Persian, and of paper, ink and colours.
• Material sources: artefacts and fossils; needs knowledge of archaeology, materials and chemicals for cleaning, and making replicas.
• Louvre (Paris, 18th century) has the "Monalisa" by Leonardo da Vinci; Napoleon's conquests added to its collection.
• British Museum (London, 18th century) began with about 71,000 objects given by Sir Hans Sloane to King George II.
• National Museum of Natural History, USA (Smithsonian, 1846) has over 12 crore specimens.
• Archives preserve reliable original documents; indexing and retrieval systems are key tasks.
• Encyclopaedias organise knowledge and make it accessible. Types: (1) dictionaries, (2) comprehensive encyclopaedia (Vishwakosh), (3) encyclopaedic (Koshsadrush) literature, (4) indexes.

Important terms

• Conservation – treating sources so they do not get damaged further.
• Museology – the study of managing museums.
• Archives – institutions that keep original documents and records.
• Vishwakosh – comprehensive encyclopaedia, e.g. "Marathi Vishvakosh", "Encyclopaedia Britannica".
• Peshwa Daftar – about 5 crore Modi documents on Maratha history at the Pune branch of Maharashtra Archives.

Important dates and people

• 1814 – Indian Museum, Kolkata, the first museum in India (Asiatic Society of Bengal).
• 1851 – Government Museum, Chennai, the second museum in India.
• 1949 – National Museum, Delhi.
• 1905 – foundation of "Prince of Wales Museum of Western India", Mumbai; renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastusangrahalay in 1998; Indo-Gothic building with about 50,000 antiquities.
• Earliest libraries – Ashurbanipal's library (Mesopotamia), Takshashila, Alexandria.
• Saraswati Mahal Granthalay, Thanjavur – expanded by Vyankojiraje Bhosale and especially Sarfojiraje Bhosale.
• 1891 – Imperial Record Department, Kolkata (first official archives); shifted to Delhi in 1911; opened to the public in 1998 by President K. R. Narayanan.
• Early encyclopaedias – Pliny the Elder's "Natural History", Diderot's "Encyclopaedia", "Encyclopaedia Britannica".
• "Bharatiya Samskruti Kosh" – edited by Mahadevshastri Joshi.

5 important questions

Q1. What training is needed for conserving written sources of history?

Knowledge of scripts like Brahmi, Modi and Persian; of past societies, dynasties and administration; of painting and sculpture styles; of types of paper, ink and colours; of stones and metals of inscriptions; of chemicals for cleaning; of exhibition management; and of writing research reports.

Q2. Write a note on the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastusangrahalay.

Mumbai residents decided in 1904 to build a museum to mark the Prince of Wales's visit; its foundation was laid in 1905. It was renamed in 1998. The Indo-Gothic building is a Grade I Heritage Building with about 50,000 antiquities in arts, archaeology and natural history.

Q3. Why are documents in archives considered reliable?

Archives preserve original documents in their original condition, with proper indexes and retrieval systems, so the records can be trusted by researchers.

Q4. What are the benefits of encyclopaedias?

They make vast knowledge easy to access, give basic information on any topic, motivate wide reading, help researchers and show areas not yet studied. They also reflect the cultural maturity of a society.

Q5. Explain the types of encyclopaedias.

Dictionaries give meanings, synonyms and origin of words. Vishwakosh covers all subjects or one subject fully. Koshsadrush literature has scholarly articles on chosen subjects, e.g. yearbooks. Indexes are alphabetical lists that help find information.

Exam tip

Revise the museum–country–year facts and the four types of encyclopaedia with one example each.

Quick summary

The Indian Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950, and since then the government works according to its principles. This chapter reviews how the Constitution has worked in three areas: democracy, social justice and equality, and the role of the judiciary.

Key points

• The Constitution aims to make India a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic, and to secure justice and freedom for citizens.
• Free and fair elections at regular intervals and growing public participation show that Indian democracy is successful.
• Adult suffrage was given to all men and women above 21; later the voting age was reduced to 18. India has the largest number of voters of any democracy.
• Decentralisation of power controls misuse of power and gives common people a share in politics. The 73rd and 74th amendments gave constitutional status and more powers to local self-government.
• After 2000, democratic reforms are seen as citizens' rights: Right to Information, Right to Education, food security (rights-based approach).
• Right to Information (2005) made government more transparent and reduced secrecy.
• Social justice means removing conditions that cause injustice and ensuring equal dignity for all, without discrimination by caste, religion, language, gender, place of birth, race or property.
• Steps for social justice: reservation of seats for SC, ST and OBC; SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act; provisions for minorities; laws for women.
• Laws for women: equal share in property, Dowry Prohibition Act, act against sexual harassment, Domestic Violence Prohibition Act; National Commission for Women.
• 73rd and 74th amendments reserved 33% seats for women in local bodies; Maharashtra has raised this to 50%.
• The judiciary has ruled that Parliament can amend the Constitution but cannot change its basic structure.

Important terms

• Adult suffrage – right to vote to all adult citizens without discrimination.
• Decentralisation – sharing power with local levels of government.
• Rights-based approach – treating development as a citizen's right, not a favour.
• Basic structure – core features of the Constitution that cannot be changed by amendment.
• Good governance – government that is accountable, effective, responsive and transparent.

Important dates and people

• 26 January 1950 – Constitution came into force.
• 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments – status to local self-government; 11th and 12th Schedules added.
• 2005 – Right to Information Act.
• Basic structure includes: republican and democratic government, federal structure, unity and integrity, sovereignty, secularism, supremacy of the Constitution, just and inclusive development.
• Women MPs in Lok Sabha: 22 in 1951–52 (4.50%) and 66 in 2014 (12.15%), the highest; 19 in 1977, the lowest.

5 important questions

Q1. What were the effects of reducing the voting age from 21 to 18?

Young people got the opportunity to take part in politics. The number of voters increased, making India's democracy even larger. New political parties emerged with the support of young voters.

Q2. State true or false with reason: Indian democracy is considered the largest democracy in the world.

True. Adult franchise is given to every citizen above 18, and India has the largest number of voters of any democratic nation.

Q3. Explain the Right to Information.

Citizens have the right to know how the government works. The RTI Act (2005) ensures transparency and accountability, reduces secrecy and builds trust between citizens and government.

Q4. What is meant by establishing social justice?

Removing the social conditions that cause injustice and ensuring equal dignity for every person. It means ending discrimination based on caste, religion, language, gender, place of birth, race or property and giving everyone equal opportunity.

Q5. How has the judiciary helped strengthen democracy?

It ruled that Parliament cannot change the basic structure of the Constitution. Through important judgements on rights of children, human rights, dignity of women, individual freedom and tribal empowerment, it made fundamental rights more meaningful.

Exam tip

Remember "50% in Maharashtra" (reservation for women in local bodies) and "RTI 2005" — they are favourite fill-in-the-blank answers.

Quick summary

Elections and representation are two key processes of democracy. Through elections people choose their representatives, and power changes hands peacefully. This chapter explains the Election Commission of India — its structure and functions — the steps of the election process, the code of conduct, challenges to free and fair elections, and suggested electoral reforms.

Key points

• Modern democracy is representative democracy: people elect representatives who run the government on their behalf.
• Article 324 of the Constitution set up the Election Commission, an autonomous body with one Chief Election Commissioner and two other commissioners.
• The President appoints the election commissioners. The Chief Election Commissioner cannot be removed easily or for political reasons — this protects the Commission's independence.
• The Commission has no separate staff; government officers, teachers and other employees help it.
• Functions: (1) prepare and update the voters' list and issue identity cards, (2) decide the timetable and stages of elections, (3) scrutinise candidates' applications, (4) recognise (or derecognise) political parties and allot symbols, (5) resolve election disputes — disqualify candidates or order re-election.
• Steps of elections: constituencies → voters' list → nomination and scrutiny → campaign → voting → counting → results → resolving disputes.
• Lok Sabha has 543 members, so 543 constituencies. The Delimitation Commission creates constituencies.
• Code of conduct: rules for the government, parties and voters before and during elections; even the government must follow it.
• Challenges: misuse of money, candidates with criminal background, violence, family monopoly in politics.
• EVMs came into use in the 1990s; NOTA lets voters reject all candidates; VVPAT lets voters check their vote.

Important terms

• Constituency – the area that elects one representative.
• Code of conduct – rules that parties, candidates and government must follow during elections.
• General election – Lok Sabha election held every five years.
• Midterm election – held before the term ends when the government loses majority and no other government is possible.
• By-election – held for one seat that falls vacant due to resignation or death.

Important dates and people

• 1950 – Election Commission established; Sukumar Sen was the first Chief Election Commissioner.
• 1951–52 – first general election of independent India; about 20 lakh steel ballot boxes with party symbols were used so that illiterate voters could vote.
• 25 October 1951 – Sham Sharan Negi of Himachal Pradesh, the first voter of India.
• 8 October 2010 – expert committee decided to add VVPAT (Voter Verified Paper Audit Trail) to EVMs.

5 important questions

Q1. Explain the functions of the Election Commission.

It prepares and updates the voters' list and issues voter ID cards; decides the timetable and stages of elections; scrutinises nominations; recognises political parties and allots symbols; and settles election disputes, including disqualifying candidates or ordering re-elections.

Q2. True or false: The state government decides when and in how many stages elections are held in a state.

False. Conducting elections is entirely the responsibility of the Election Commission. It decides when and in how many stages elections will be held in every state.

Q3. Explain the meaning of code of conduct.

It is a set of rules laid down by the Election Commission for the government, political parties, candidates and voters before and during elections, to ensure free and fair elections. For example, distributing gifts or appealing on the basis of caste and religion breaks the code.

Q4. Explain midterm elections.

If the government loses its majority before completing its term (for example, coalition partners withdraw support) and no alternative government can be formed, elections are held before the term ends. These are midterm elections.

Q5. Suggest some electoral reforms.

Amend the Representation of the People Act to keep out candidates with criminal records; government funding of election expenses; 50% candidature for women; parties should avoid family monopoly and follow court decisions.

Exam tip

Know the difference between general, midterm and by-elections, and remember: Article 324, Sukumar Sen, Delimitation Commission, 543 seats.

Quick summary

Political parties link common people, democracy, representation and elections. A political party is a group of people who aim to contest elections, win, gain power and form a government. This chapter explains the features of political parties, the changing party system in India, the national parties and the rise and role of regional parties.

Key points

• Features of a political party: aims to be in power, follows an ideology, has a party agenda, forms the government (or acts as the opposition), and links the government and the people.
• Social support for a party is called its "mass base".
• Party systems: one-party, two-party and multi-party. India has a multi-party system.
• After independence Congress was dominant — the era of the "single dominant party system".
• In 1977 non-Congress parties came together and challenged Congress dominance.
• After the 1989 Lok Sabha elections, coalition governments began, and coalition politics has stabilised in India.
• Mahatma Gandhi, Vinoba Bhave and Jayprakash Narayan put forward the idea of partyless democracy.
• Regional parties arise from linguistic, regional and cultural identity and work for regional development.
• Regional parties changed from separatism (e.g. Khalistan, Dravidistan demands) to demands for autonomy (after 1990), and now into mainstream national politics. Coalition politics is a result of their growing influence.

Important terms

• Political party – an organisation that contests elections to gain political power.
• Ideology – a party's policies and world view on social issues.
• Opposition party – party that does not get majority and keeps a check on the government.
• Coalition government – government formed by several parties together.
• Regionalism – strong feeling of identity and interest about one's own region.

Important dates and people

Conditions for a national party (any one): (a) at least 6% of valid votes in four or more states in the last Lok Sabha or Assembly elections and at least 4 Lok Sabha members, or (b) members elected from at least 2% of Lok Sabha constituencies from at least 3 states.
Conditions for a regional party (any one): (a) at least 6% of valid votes and at least 2 members in the State Assembly, or (b) at least 3% of Assembly seats or at least 3 seats.

5 important questions

Q1. What are the main characteristics of political parties?

To gain power through elections, to pursue an ideology, to have a party agenda, to form the government or act as opposition, and to work as a link between the government and the people.

Q2. Explain the changing nature of the party system in India.

After independence Congress dominated (single dominant party system). In 1977 non-Congress parties challenged it. After 1989 no single party dominated and coalition governments formed under both BJP and Congress; coalition government has proved stable in India.

Q3. What are the conditions for recognition as a national party?

A party should get at least 6% of valid votes in four or more states and have at least 4 Lok Sabha members, or win at least 2% of Lok Sabha seats from at least 3 states.

Q4. How has the role of regional parties changed?

At first some made separatist demands. After 1990 they demanded more autonomy. They then demanded that people of the region get power at state and national level. North-East parties gave up separatism and joined mainstream politics.

Q5. Write a note on the Shiv Sena.

Founded in 1966 in Maharashtra to protect the rights of Marathi people and promote the Marathi language. It came to power in coalition with BJP in 1995. After the 2019 elections it formed the government with Congress and NCP.

Exam tip

Learn party–founding year pairs and the national/regional party conditions; tables and "complete the chart" questions come from these.

Quick summary

A movement is an organised, collective effort by people around a particular issue, to build public opinion and pressure the government to solve it. This chapter explains why movements are needed in a democracy, their features, and the main movements in India: tribal, farmers, labour, women's, environment and consumer movements.

Key points

• Political parties must look at all issues from a national view, so they cannot focus on just one issue. Movements fill this gap by concentrating on one issue.
• Movements bring social problems into discussion and give useful information to the government for making policies.
• The right to protest is important in a democracy but must be used patiently and responsibly.
• Features of a movement: collective action, a particular objective, leadership, organisation, and an ideology behind it. Some movements later become political parties.
• Tribal movement: the main demand is the right over forests — to collect forest products and cultivate forest land. Tribal uprisings took place in British times (Kol, Gond, Koli, Bhil, Ramoshi, Santhal, Munda).
• Farmers' movement: inspired by Mahatma Phule, Justice Ranade and Mahatma Gandhi. After the Green Revolution, poor farmers' dissatisfaction made it active. Demands: fair price for produce, agriculture as an industry, Swaminathan Commission recommendations, debt relief.
• Labour movement grew with industrialisation; railway workers struck in 1899. Globalisation has weakened it since the 1980s.
• Women's movement: reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Mahatma Phule, Savitribai Phule, Maharshi Karve, Pandita Ramabai and Ramabai Ranade worked against sati and child marriage, and for widow remarriage and women's education.
• Environment movements work for biodiversity, water sources, forests and against river pollution and harmful chemicals.
• Consumer movement began after the Consumer Protection Act, 1986; it fights adulteration, high prices and cheating in weights and measures.

Important terms

• Movement – organised collective action by people on a particular issue.
• Neo-social movements – issue-based movements after 1980.
• Green Revolution – programme to increase farm production and become self-sufficient in food grains.
• Johad – traditional rainwater storage structure in Rajasthan.

Important dates and people

• 1899 – railway workers' strike.
• 1920 – All India Trade Union Congress, first organisation for workers.
• 1986 – Consumer Protection Act.
• Farmers' organisations: Shetkari Sanghatana, Bharatiya Kisan Union, All India Kisan Sabha.
• Dr Rajendra Singh, "Waterman of India" – Tarun Bharat Sangh built about 11,000 johads in Rajasthan; won the Stockholm Water Prize.

5 important questions

Q1. True or false with reason: Movements are important in a democracy.

True. Movements bring social problems into discussion, so the government has to pay attention. Their leaders give useful information for policy making. They also increase people's participation in public life.

Q2. True or false with reason: Movements do not need a strong leadership.

False. Leaders decide the objectives, programme of action and strategy of agitation and keep the movement active. A strong leadership makes a movement effective.

Q3. Explain the tribal movement.

In British times, tribals lost their right to livelihood from forests, leading to uprisings. Even today their main problem is denial of rights over forests. The movement demands the right to collect forest produce and to cultivate forest land.

Q4. Explain the nature of the farmers' movement in India.

It started against the anti-farmer policies of the British (Bardoli, Champaran). After the Green Revolution, rich and poor farmers were divided and poor farmers' discontent made the movement active. Demands include fair prices, debt relief and a national agriculture policy.

Q5. Explain the role of environment movements.

They work at local, national and international level to stop environmental damage — protecting biodiversity, water sources and forests, creating green belts, stopping river pollution and the harmful use of chemicals.

Exam tip

For "true or false with reason" questions, always write the reason in 2–3 lines; the answer word alone gets no marks.

Quick summary

Democracy is a continuous, living process — adopting it is not enough; it needs alert and conscious efforts to survive. This chapter looks at challenges to democracy at the global level and in India (communalism, terrorism, Naxalism, corruption, criminalisation of politics, family monopoly, social problems) and the steps needed to make Indian democracy successful.

Key points

• Global challenges: spreading true democracy to all nations, military takeovers, and making democracy deep-rooted.
• Values like freedom, equality, fraternity, justice, peace, development and humanitarianism must be practised at all levels of society.
• In India, democracy often appears only in political form (voting, elections, government structure). It must become a way of life in every part of social life.
• Communalism and terrorism: religious conflict harms social stability and reduces people's participation in democracy.
• Left extremism (Naxalism): began against injustice to landless farmers and tribals, but has become a violent struggle, and the farmers' and tribals' problems have lost importance in it.
• Corruption: reduces government efficiency, causes distrust; electoral corruption (bogus voting, bribing voters) reduces confidence in democracy.
• Criminalisation of politics: giving tickets to people with criminal background increases money and muscle power and may cause election violence.
• Family monopoly in politics reduces democratic space for common people.
• Social challenges: unemployment, unequal distribution of resources, a growing rich–poor gap, caste issues.

Important terms

• Communalism – hostility between religious communities, used for political ends.
• Left extremism / Naxalism – violent struggle against the government, originally on behalf of landless farmers and tribals.
• Criminalisation of politics – entry of people with criminal records into politics.
• Family monopoly – control of politics by members of one family.

Important dates and people

Steps to make democracy successful:

• Majority rule must include minorities in decision-making; all religious, linguistic, ethnic and caste groups should get equal opportunity.
• The judiciary works to make the political process transparent and to keep criminals out of politics.
• Government schemes: Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Gram Samruddhi Yojana, Self-help Groups, MGNREGS.
• 50% seats reserved for women in local self-government institutions.
• Greater participation of people at all levels, and practising equality, liberty, social justice and secularism in personal life.

5 important questions

Q1. True or false with reason: Alertness is required to sustain democracy.

True. Merely adopting democracy does not put it into practice. Threats to democracy must be understood in time and dealt with democratically, which needs alert and conscious efforts.

Q2. True or false with reason: The importance of farmers' and tribals' problems has increased in the left extremist movement.

False. Naxalism began against injustice to landless farmers and tribals, but now it uses violence, attacks police and opposes government policies. The problems of farmers and tribals have become less important in it.

Q3. Explain the concept of corruption as a challenge to democracy.

Corruption at political and administrative levels reduces government efficiency. Delays, poor services and financial scams create distrust. Bogus voting, bribing and abducting voters reduce people's confidence in elections.

Q4. What are the effects of criminalisation of politics?

It increases the role of money and muscle power, may lead to violence during elections, and lowers people's faith in democratic institutions.

Q5. Which factors are required for the success of democracy in India?

Considering minorities in decision-making; a judiciary that keeps politics transparent; efforts by society and individuals; people's participation at all levels; and practising equality, liberty, social justice and secularism in daily life as responsible citizens.

Exam tip

Questions on Naxalism and corruption appear often — learn one cause and one effect for each challenge.

Quick summary

Q1 (A) asks you to complete 3 statements by choosing the right option – 1 mark each, 3 marks. Q1 (B) asks you to find the wrong pair. Both test names of books, people, places and years.

Key points

• Rewrite the full statement with the right option, not just the letter.
• For a wrong pair, write the wrong pair and then the correct pair.
• Voltaire is called the father of modern historiography.
• Das Kapital – Karl Marx; Archaeology of Knowledge – Michel Foucault.
• The Annales school began in France in the 20th century.
• Alexander Cunningham – first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (founded 1861).
• Stree Purush Tulana – Tarabai Shinde; Gulamgiri – Mahatma Phule.
• National Archives of India – New Delhi; Kaas plateau – Satara district.
• Mathura style of sculpture – Kushana period.
• Bengal Gazette (1780) – James Augustus Hickey, India's first English newspaper; Darpan (1832) – Balshastri Jambhekar.
• Sita Swayamvar (1843) – Vishnudas Bhave; Raja Harishchandra (1913) – Dadasaheb Phalke.

Example

Q. Darpan was started by ........ (Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Balshastri Jambhekar, Bhau Mahajan, Agarkar)
Answer: Darpan was started by Balshastri Jambhekar.

Quick revision

• 3 sub-questions × 1 mark; answer as a full sentence.
• Book ↔ author and newspaper ↔ editor are asked most.
• Years to remember: 1780, 1832, 1843, 1861, 1913.

Quick summary

Q2 (A): complete the concept map – usually any 2 out of 3, 2 marks each (4 marks). A topic sits in the centre with empty boxes around it.

Key points

• Read the centre first; all boxes are of the same kind (person, book, type, place).
• Redraw the map and show it fully filled.
• Western historians → books: Herodotus – The Histories; Descartes – Discourse on the Method; Hegel – Reason in History; Marx – Das Kapital; Foucault – Archaeology of Knowledge.
• Indian schools: Colonial (Grant Duff), Nationalist (Chiplunkar, Rajwade), Marxist (D. D. Kosambi), Subaltern (Ranajit Guha), Feminist (Tarabai Shinde, Pandita Ramabai).
• Mass media: print (newspapers), audio-visual (radio, TV), new media (internet).
• Indian arts: visual (painting, sculpture, architecture) and performing (music, dance, drama).

Example

Centre: "Marathi newspapers and editors" → Darpan – Balshastri Jambhekar; Kesari – Tilak; Sudharak – Agarkar; Mooknayak – Dr Ambedkar.

Quick revision

• 2 of 3 maps × 2 marks; always redraw the full diagram.
• Book–author and newspaper–editor maps come most often.

Quick summary

Q2 (B): write short notes – usually any 2 of 3, 2 marks each (4 marks). Write each note in 3–4 numbered points.

Key points

• Pattern: meaning → who/when → importance.
• Dialectics: truth reached through two opposite ideas; given by Hegel; debate leads to a new combined idea.
• Annales school: began in 20th-century France; studies climate, farming, trade and daily life along with politics; made history about ordinary people.
• Feminist history: records women's place in history; Simone de Beauvoir inspired it; in Maharashtra Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai.
• Subaltern history: history from the view of the marginalised; idea of Antonio Gramsci; Ranajit Guha in India.
• Marathi theatre: Vishnudas Bhave staged Sita Swayamvar at Sangli in 1843; musical plays followed; theatre spread social awareness.

Example

Short note: Darpan – started by Balshastri Jambhekar on 6 January 1832; printed in Marathi and English; aimed at social reform, so 6 January is observed as Patrakar Din.

Quick revision

• 2 of 3 notes × 2 marks; 3 short points are enough.
• Most notes come from the two historiography chapters.

Quick summary

Q4 gives a short passage with questions for 4 marks – usually two 1-mark questions and one 2-mark question (explain or give your opinion).

Key points

• Read the questions first, then the passage.
• 1-mark answers come straight from the passage, in one sentence.
• 2-mark answer: 2–3 sentences – a point from the passage plus your own view.
• Passages are usually based on textbook topics: inscriptions, copper plates, museums, newspapers, sports, tourism, heritage.

Example

Passage (written for practice): Museums keep old coins, weapons, pots, clothes and paintings. These objects show how people lived, traded and made art. They must be kept at the right temperature and light, so museums need experts in chemistry, art and management.

• Q1 (1): What do museums keep? → Old coins, weapons, pots, clothes and paintings.
• Q2 (1): Why do museums need experts? → To keep objects safe at the right temperature and light.
• Q3 (2): Why are museums important? → They let us see the past through real objects and make us proud of our heritage; they also give jobs to many experts.

Quick revision

• Q4 = 4 marks (1 + 1 + 2); questions first, passage next.
• 1 mark = a line from the passage; 2 marks = point + your opinion.